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UCSB LIBRARY

ARISTOTLE'S
POLITICS

TRANSLATED BY

BENJAMIN JOWETT

WITH INTRODUCTION, ANALYSIS AND INDEX BV

H. W. C. DAVIS, M.A.

FELLOW OF BALLIOU

OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1916

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK

TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFORD

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVEKSITY

CONTENTS

Introduction

Analysis .

The Politics.
Book I .
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII

VIII
Index

PAGE

I

25

54

100

145

187

237
257
300
319

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2008 with funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/aristotlespolitiOOaris

INTRODUCTION

The life of Aristotle, so far as it Illustrates this treatise,
may be summarized in a few words. He was by birth a
Greek, but a native of the small city of Stageira which stood
upon the fringe of the Greek world ; he was therefore well
fitted by his origin to be an impartial, yet sympathetic critic,
of the more famous city-states of Greece. In his youth he
studied philosophy at Athens under Plato, thus coming at the
most impressionable period of his life into close relations with
the profoundest thinker whom Greece had yet produced.
After the death of Plato (347), he quitted Athens to spend
some years in the service of the new race of monarchs whose
mission it was to diffiise Greek culture through the East and
at the same time to complete the destruction of all that was
most valuable and characteristic in the political life of Greece.
At the court of Hermias, the obscure tyrant of the obscure
city of Atarneus, Aristotle had the opportunity of observing
the once great, but then decadent, despotism of Persia, to
which he makes some references in the Politics. In 343 or
342 he migrated to Macedonia, joined the court of Philip,
and acted for three years or so as tutor to the youthful
Alexander. The results of his experience in Macedonia,
and the drift of the political teaching which he gave to his
pupil may perhaps be inferred from the comments which, in
several passages of the Politics, he passes on monarchies
and tyrannies. About the year 335, on the eve of Alex-
ander's great campaigns of conquest, the philosopher turned
his back on Macedonia ; we may infer from what he says of
empires, that while he realized their possible services to civili-

OAVI3 R

2 Introduction

zation, he was still more alive to the dangers, moral and
other, which beset the path of a military and aggressive state.
His sympathies were with the past, not the future ; with
Sparta and Athens rather than with Macedon ; with Plato
rather than with Alexander. Settling down at Athens, he
became the leader of a philosophic school, the director of
a brilliant academy ; but he incurred the odium to which a
friend of Macedon was naturally exposed in the city of
Demosthenes. In 323, after the death of his pupil and patron,
he was driven into exile by a prosecution for impiety which,
if he had faced it, would probably have brought upon his head
the fate of Socrates. He died in the following year at
Chalcis, a Macedonian stronghold. The semi-barbarians, of
whose future he doubted, had been more generous to him than
the Greeks, whose highest thought it had been his life-work
to interpret and to vindicate.

Of his literary work in general this is not the place to
speak. It is enough to say that he aimed at expounding in
the light of his own philosophic principles all the sciences
which were then recognized, and that he followed consis-
tently the method, of which the Politics are a conspicuous
illustration, of combining induction with deductive reasoning
from first principles, and of testing his own conclusions
by a comparison with popular opinions and those of other
teachers. Encyclopaedic knowledge has never, before or
since, gone hand in hand with a logic so masculine or with
speculation so profound. But it is in dealing with the moral
rather than the natural sciences that he is greatest, most ade-
quately equipped with facts, and most interested in his subject.
Of his work in the moral sciences the final results are
incorporated in the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics. The
two treatises are intimately connected. In the Ethics he

Introduction 3

discusses the nature of individual happiness or well-being ; in
the Politics he treats of the state as one of the chief means
through which the individual attains to happiness. The
object of the Poiii'ics is both practical and speculative ; to
explain the nature of the ideal city in which the end of happi-
ness may be completely realized ; to suggest some methods
of making existent states more useful to the individual citizen
than they were in Aristotle's time, or had been in the past.

Aristotle is not, strictly speaking, the founder of political
science. In the age of Pericles, and earlier still, statesmen
and philosophers had theorized about the origin of society,
the relative merits of various constitutions, and other kindred
topics. Though Socrates was more concerned U'ith ethics
than with politics, he applied the powerful solvent of his
dialectic to many of the political ideas which were fashionable
in his day. The conceptions of utility as the ideal which the
statesman should pursue, and of scientific knowledge as the
indispensable equipment of the statesman, would seem to have
had their birth in the Socratic circle. Plato, the pupil of
Socrates, not content with developing the suggestions of his
master and with giving to the Socratic formulae a deeper
meaning, essayed a more systematic discussion of the nature
of the state and its right organization. In the Republic he
describes the state as it would appear if founded and governed
by philosophers ; in the Laws he offered to the statesmen of
his age a model more practicable and more nearly related to
the experience of the past ; a model which the legislator for
a new colony might follow without undue violence to Greek
prejudices and opinions. Although the views of Plato aie
sharply, and not always justly, criticized by Aristotle, the
influence of the Republic and the Latus is perceptible in many
places of the Politics where they are not mentioned.

B 2

4 Introduction

The Politics, in fiict, would not be so valuable as they are
if they expressed the views of an individual man of genius
and nothing more. Here as elsewhere it is not the least of
Aristotle's merits that he epitomized the best thoughts of
a nation and of a stage in human history. He respected the
political thinkers of the past, both the statesmen and the
theorists ; he was loth to admit that any institution or polity
which had stood the test of time could be altogether bad.
Hence he appears before us as a mediator in the controversies
of his own and the preceding ages. It is his wish to lay bare
the grain of truth which exists at the core of every political
practice and belief. He interprets even those ideals with which
he is least in sympathy. And so we learn from him what the
various types of the city-state signified to the Greek mind ;
we are admitted under his guidance to the penetralia of their
political thought.

The history of the Greek city-state we can study for our-
selves, with fewer sources of information, it is true, than
Aristotle had at his command, but also with a more critical
appreciation of their value and a more scientific method of
interpretation than was to be learned in Athenian schools of
the fourth century. We are too in a better position than
Aristotle to see the true place of the city-state in the evolution
of society, to appreciate its limitations, to condemn its evils,
and to draw the moral from its failure. We know, what he
does not appear to have suspected, that the careers of his
( Macedonian patrons had sealed the death-warrant of the
community which he regarded as the highest that human
skill was capable of framing. Ampler experience has shown
us that slavery is not the indispensable basis of a civilization,
nor commerce always degrading to the individual and destruc-
tive of national morality. In the modern world we have

Introduction y

before us communities which, in defiance of his prophecies,
have become extensive without becoming disunited. By his
own methods of induction and comparison we can refute some
of the laws which he regarded as immutable.

Still we must start from Aristotle. His account of the
city-state may be supplemented and corrected, but not super-
seded. The governing ideas of any polity are always best
expressed by those to whom they stand for the absolute and
final ti-uth ; and there is no form of polity which the student of
political science should study with more care than the city-state.
Just because it is comparatively simple, just because it is unlike
the states with which we are personally acquainted, it contains
the key to many modern problems. Aristotle is the best inter-
preter of an essential link in the chain of political development.

But he is something more than this, more than a Greek
who states the case of Greece. He is also a philosopher
and a student of human nature. His views as to the origin
and ultimate structure of society, as to the aims of civic life,
as to the mutual obligations of the state and the individual, as
to the nature of political justice, all have a value which is
independent of his historical position. It is often difficult to
follow his discussions of these and cognate subjects. His
arguments are stated with extreme conciseness, and the train
of thought which leads him from one topic to another is often
far from clear. But those who have the patience to wrestle
with his text will find in it theories of perennial value, and
refutations of fallacies which are always re-emerging. Nor is
it merely from his more abstract disquisitions that such lessons
are to be extracted. While there could be no greater mistake
than to apply his criticisms of democracies and aristocracies
to modern governments which go by the same names, without
stopping to enquire how far the names have changed their

6 Introduction

meanings, it is on the other hand often apparent that these
criticisms, when the necessary qualifications have been made,
are as time of the present as they were of Greece. Of this
an illustration may be found in the account of revolutions and
their causes which foi ms the fifth book of the Politics.

The Politics should probably be regarded as an unfinished
work. There are not infrequent repetitions ; some subjects
which the author promises to treat are never treated ; and we
are sometimes at a loss for the connecting link betweien suc-
cessive books or parts of the same book. The traditional
order of the books is probably not that which Aristotle con-
templated, and has been altered by most editors. The pre-
sent translation follows the order of Bekker's first edition ;
the numbering of the books in his octavo edition of 1878 has
been given in brackets wherever it differs from that of the
first. None of the rearrangements which have been sug-
gested are completely satisfactory. Whichever of them is
adopted, the reader will find that positions assumed at an
earlier are only proved at a later stage of the argument. The
Politics should be treated as a quarry of arguments and
theories rather than as an artistically constructed piece of
literature. It is best studied by the collection and com-
parison of all the passages which bear upon the same topic.
It is hoped that for this purpose the subject-headings in the
Index, which is abridged from that of the translator, may
be of service. A brief analysis is prefixed to the translation
with the object of explaining the thread of the argument, where
such a thread exists, of indicating the natural divisions of the
text, and of enumerating the chief topics of discussion.

The thanks of the editor are due to tlie Master of Balliol
for his kindness in revising the proof of this Introduction.

H. W. C. DAVIS.

BOOK I.

cc. I, 2. Definition and structure of the State.

The state is the highest form of community and aims at
the highest good. How it differs from other communities
will appear if we examine the parts of which it is composed
(c. i). It consists of villages which consist of households.
The household is founded upon the two relations of male and
female, of master and slave ; it exists to satisfy man's daily
needs. The village, a wider community, satisfies a wider
range of needs. The state aims at satisfying all the needs of
men. Men form states to secure a bare subsistence ; but the
ultimate object of the state is the good life. The naturalness
of the state is proved by the faculty of speech in man. In
the order of Nature the state precedes the household and th-e
individual. It is founded on a natural impulse, that towards
political association (c. 2).

cc. 3-13. Household economy. The Slave. Property.
Children and Wives.

Let us discuss the household, since the state is composed
of households (c. 3). First as to slavery. The slave is
a piece of property which is animate, and useful for action
rather than for production (c. 4). Slavery is natural ; in
every department of the natural universe we find the relation
of ruler and subject. There are human beings who, without
possessing reason, understand it. These are natural slaves
(c. 5). But we find persons in slavery who are not natural
slaves. Hence slavery itself is condemned by some ; but
they are wrong. The natural slave benefits by subjection to
a master (c. 6). The art of ruling slaves ditfers from that of

8 Analysis

ruling free men but calls for no detailed description ; any one
who is a natural master can acquire it for himself (c. 7).

As to property and the modes of acquiring it. This
subject concerns us in so far as property is an indispensable
substratum to the household (c. 8), But we do not need
that form of finance which accumulates wealth for its own
sake. This is unnatural finance. It has been made possible
by the invention of coined money. It accumulates money by
means of exchange. Natural and unnatural finance are often
treated as though they were the same, but differ in their aims
(c. 9) ; also in their subject matter ; for natural finance is
only concerned with the fruits of the earth and animals
(c. 10). Natural finance is necessaiy to the householder;
he must therefore know about live stock, agriculture, possibly
about the exchange of the products of the earth, such as
wood and minerals, for money. Special treatises on finance
exist, and the subject should be specially studied by statesmen
(c. II).

Lastly, we must discuss and distinguish the relations of
husband to wife, of father to child (c. 12). In household
management persons call for more attention than things ; free
persons for more than slaves. Slaves are only capable of an
inferior kind of virtue. Socrates vs^as wrong in denying that
there are several kinds of virtue. Still the slave must be
trained in virtue. The education of the free man will be
subsequently discussed (c. 13).

BOOK II.
cc. 1-8. Ideal Commonivealths— Plato, Phaleas, Hippodamus.
To ascertain the nature of the ideal state we should start
by examining both the best states of history and the best that

Analysis 9

theorists have imagined. Otlierwise we might waste our
time over problems which otheis have ah-eady solved.

Among theorists, Plato in the Republic raises the most
fundamental questions. He desires to abolish private pi'operty
and the family (c. i). But the end which he has in view is
wrong. He wishes to make all his citizens absolutely alike ;
but the differentiation of functions is a law of nature. There
can be too much unity in a state (c. 2). And the means by
which he would promote unity are wrong. The abolition of
property will produce, not remove, dissension. Communism
of wives and children will destroy natural affection (c. 3).
Other objections can be raised ; but this is the fatal one
(c. 4). To descend to details. The advantages to be
expected from communism of property would be better
secured if private property were used in a liberal spirit to
relieve the wants of others. Private property makes men
happier, and enables them to cultivate such virtues as ■
generosity. The Republic makes unity the result of uni-
formity among the citizens, which is not the case. The
good sense of mankind has always been against Plato, and
experiment would show that his idea is impracticable

(c. 5).

Plato sketched another ideal state in the Laws ; it was
meant to be more practicable than the other. In the Laius
he abandoned communism, but otherwise upheld the leading
ideas of the earlier treatise, except that he made the new
state larger and too large. He forgot to discuss foreign
relations, and to fix a limit of private property, and to restrict
the increase of population, and to distin<^ish between ruler
and subject. The form of government which he proposed
was bad (c. 6).

ro Analysis

Phaleas of Chalcedon made equal distribution of property
the main feature of his scheme. This would be difficult
to effect, and would not meet the evils which Phaleas
had in mind. Dissensions arise from deeper causes than
inequality of wealth. His state would be weak against
foreign foes. His reforms would anger the rich and not
satisfy the poor (c. 7).

Hippodamus, who was not a practical politician, aimed
at symmetry. In his state there were to be three classes,
three kinds of landed property, three sorts of laws. He
also proposed to (i) create a Court of Appeal, (2) let juries
qualify their verdicts, (3) reward those who made discoveries
of public utility. His classes and his property system were
badly devised. Qualified verdicts are impossible since jurymen
may not confer together. The law about discoveries would
encourage men to tamper with the Constitution. Now laws
when obsolete and absurd should be changed ; but needless
changes diminish the respect for law (c. 8).

cc. 9—12. The best existent states — Sparta^ Crete, and
Carthage — Greek laivgluers.

The Spartans cannot manags tiieir serf population. Their
women are too influential and too luxurious. Their property
system has concentrated all wealth in a few hands. Hence
the citizen body has decreased. There are points to criticize
in the Ephorate, the Senate, the Kingship, the common
meals, the Admiralty. The Spartan and his state are only
fit for war. Yet even in war Sparta is hampered by the want
of a financial system (c. 9).

The Cretan cities resemble Sj)arta in their constitutions,
but are more primitive. Their common meals are better

Analy.

sis I I

managed. But the Cosmi are worse than the Ephors. The
Cretan constitution is a narrow and factious oligarchy ; the
cities are saved from destruction osly by their inaccessibility
(c. lo).

The Carthaginian polity is highly praised, and not without
reason. It may be compared with the Spartan ; it is an
oligarchy with some democratic features. It lays stress upon
wealth ; in Carthage all offices are bought and sold. Also,
one man may hold several offices together. These are bad
features. But the discontent of the peoj^le is soothed by
schemes of emigration (c. ii).

Of lawgivers, Solon was the best ; conservative when
possible, and a moderate democrat. About Philolaus, Cha-
rondas, Phaleas, Draco, Pittacus, and Androdamas there is
little to be said (c. 12).

BOOK III.
cc. 1-5- The Cidzen, civic virtue, and the civic body.

How are we to define a citizen ? He is more than a mere
denizen; private rights do not make a citizen. He is ordi-
narily one who possesses political power ; who sits on juries
and in the assembly. But it is hard to find a definition which
applies to all so-called citizens. To define him as the son of
citizen parents is futile (c. i). Some say that his civic rights
must have been justly acquired. But he is a citizen who has
political power, however acquired (c. 2). Similarly the state
is defined by reference to the distribution of political power ;
when the mode of distribution is changed a new state comes
into existence (c. 3).

The good citizen may not be a good man ; the good citizen
is one who does good service to his state, and this state may

1 2 Analysis

be bad in principle. In a constitutional state the good citizen

"knows both how to rule and how to obey. The good man

is one who is fitted to rule. But the citizen in a constitu-

I tional state learns to rule by obeying orders. Therefore citizen-

\ ship in such a state is a moral training (c. 4).

Mechanics will not be citizens in the best state. Extreme
democracies, and some oligarchies, neglect this rule. But cir-
cumstances oblige them to do this. They have no choice
(c. 5).

cc. 6—13. The Classification of Constitutions ; Democracy
and Oligarchy ; Kingship.
. The aims of the state are two ; to satisfy man's social
\ instinct, and to fit him for the good life. Political rule
differs from that over slaves in aiming primarily at the good
of those who are ruled (c. 6). Constitutions are bad or good
according as the common welfare is, or is not, their aim.
Of good Constitutions there are three : Monarchy, Aris-
tocracy, and Polity. Of bad there are also three : Tyranny,
Oligarchy, Extreme Democracy. The bad are perversions
of the good (c. 7).

Democracies and Oligarchies are not made by the numeri-
cal proportion of the rulers to the ruled. Democracy is the
rule of the poor; oligarchy is that of the rich (c. 8).
Democrats take Equality for their motto ; oligarchs believe
that political rights should be unequal and proportionate to
wealth. But both sides miss the true object of the state,
which is virtue. Those who do most to promote virtue
deserve the gi-eatest share of power (c. 9). On the same
principle, Justice is not the will of the majority or of the
wealthier, but that course of action which the moral aim of

Analysis 1 3

the state requires (c. lo). But are the Many or the Few
likely to be the better rulers ? It would be unreasonable to
give the highest offices to the Many. But they have a
faculty of criticism which fits them for deliberative and
judicial power. The good critic need not be an expert ;
experts are sometimes bad judges. Moreover, the Many have
a greater stake in the city than the Few. But the governing
body, whether Few or Many, must be held in check by the
laws (c. 11). On what principle should political power be
distributed ? Granted that equals deserve equal shares ; who
are these equals ? Obviously those who are equally able to
be of service to the state (c. 12). Hence there is something
in the claims advanced by the wealthy, the free born, the
noble, the highly gifted. But no one of these classes should
be allowed to rule the rest. A state should consist of men
who are equal, or nearly so, in wealth, in birth, in moral and
intellectual excellence. The principle which underlies Ostra- 1
cism is plausible. But in the ideal state, if a pre-eminent
individual be found, he should be made a king (c. 1 3).

cc. 14-18. The Forms of Monarchy.
Of Monarchy there are five kinds, (i) the Spartan, (2) the
Barbarian, (3) the elective dictatorship, (4) the Heroic, (5)
Absolute Kingship (c. 14). The last of these forms might
appear the best polity to some ; that is, if the king acts as the
embodiment of law. For he will dispense from the law in
the spirit of the law. But this power would be less abused if
reserved for the Many. Monarchy arose to meet the needs
of primitive society ; it is now obsolete and on various grounds
objectionable (c. 15). It tends to become hereditary; it
subjects equals to the rule of an equal. The individual

1 4 Analysis

monarch may be misled by his passions, and no single man
can attend to all the duties of government (c. i6). One case
alone can be imagined in which Absolute Kingship would be
just (c. 17).

Let us consider the origin and nature of the best polity,
now that we have agreed not to call Absolute Kingship the
best (c. 18).

BOOK IV (VI).

cc. i-io. Variations of the main types oj" Constitutions.

Political science should study (i) the ideal state, (2) those
states which may be the best obtainable under special circum-
stances, and even (3) those which are essentially bad. For
the statesman must sometimes make the best of a bad Con-
stitution (c. i). Of our six main types of state, Kingship
and Aristocracy have been discussed (cf. Bk: III, c. 14 fol.).
Let us begin by dealing with the other four and their divisions,
enquiring also when and why they may be desirable (c. 2).

First as to Democracy and Oligarchy. The common
view that Democracy and Oligarchy should be taken as the
main types of Constitution is at variance with our own view
and wrong (c. 3). So is the view that the numerical propor-
tion of rulers to ruled makes the difference between these two
types ; in a Democracy the Many are also the poor, in an
Oligarchy the Few are also the wealthy. In every state
the distinction between rich and poor is the most funda-
mental of class-divisions. Still Oligarchy and Democracy
are important types ; and their variations arise from differences
in the character of the ricfi and the poor by whom they are
ruled.

Of Democracies there are four kinds. The worst, ex-

Ana ly-

sis ly

treme Democi'acy, is that in which all offices are open to
all, and the will of the people overrides all law (c. 4). Of
Oligarchies too there are four kinds ; the worst is that in
which offices are hereditary and the magistrates uncontrolled
by law (c. 5). These variations arise under circumstances
which may be briefly described (c. 6).

Of Aristocracy in the strict sense there is but one form,
that in which the best men alone are citizens (c. 7).

Polity is a compromise between Democracy and Oligarchy,
but inclines to the Democratic side. Many so-called Aris-
tocracies are really Polities (c. 8). There are different
ways of efrecting the compromise which makes a Polity. The
Laconian Constitution is an example of a successful com-
promise (c. 9).

Tyranny is of three kinds: (i) the barbarian despotism,
and (2) the elective dictatorship have already been discussed ;
in both there is rule according to law over willing subjects.
But in (3) the strict form of tyranny, there is the lawless rule
of one man over unwilling subjects (c. 10).

cc. I1-13. Of the Best State both in general and under special
circumstances.
For the average city-state the best constitution will be a
mean between the rule of rich and poor ; the middle-class
will be supreme. No state will be well administered unless
the middle-class holds sway. The middle-class is stronger
in large than in small states. Hence in Greece it has rarely
attained to power ; especially as democracy and oligarchy
were aided by the influence of the leading states (c. 11).
No constitution can dispense with the support of the strongest
class in the state. Hence Democracy and Oligarchy are the

1 6 Analysis

only constitutions possible in some states. But in these cases
the legislator should conciliate the middle-class (c. 12).
Whatever form of constitution be adopted there are expedients
to be noted which may help in preserving it (c. 1 3).

cc. 14—16. Ho'U) to proceed in framing a Constitution.
The legislator must pay attention to three subjects in par-
ticular ; {a) The Deliberative Assembly which is different in
each form of constitution (c. 14). {h) The Executive.
Here he must know what offices are indispensable and which
of them may be conveniently combined in the person of one
magistrate ; also whether the same offices should be supreme
in every state ; also which of the twelve or more methods of
making appointments should be adopted in each case (c. 1 5).
(c) The Courts of Law. Here he must consider the kinds
of law-courts, their spheres of action, their methods of
procedure (c. 16),

BOOK V (VIII).
cc. 1—4. Of Revolutions, and their causes in general.

Ordinary states are founded on erroneous ideas of justice,
which lead to discontent and revolution. Of revolutions
some are made to introduce a new Constitution, others to
modify the old, others to put the working of the Constitution
in new hands. Both Democracy and Oligarchy contain
inherent flaws which lead to revolution, but Democracy is the
more stable of the two types (c. i).

We may distinguish between the frame of mind which
fosters revolution, the objects for which it is started, and the
provocative causes (c. 2). The latter deserve a more detailed
account (c. 3). Trifles may be the occasion but are never

Analysis 1 7

the true cause of a sedition. One common cause is the
aggrandizement of a particular class ; another is a feud be-
tween rich and poor when they are evenly balanced and
there is no middle-class to mediate. As to the manner of
effecting a revolution : it may be carried through by force or
fraud (c. 4).

cc. 5-12. Revolutions in particular States, and boiv
revolutions may be avoided.

(a) In Democracies revolutions may arise from a persecu-
tion of the rich ; or when a demagogue becomes a general, or
when politicians compete for the favour of the mob (c. 5).
{b) In Oligarchies the people may rebel against oppression ;
ambitious oligarchs may conspire, or appeal to the people,
or set up a tyrant. Oligarchies are seldom destroyed except
by the feuds of their own members ; unless they employ
a mercenary captain, who may become a tyrant (c. 6). (c)
In Aristocracies and Polities the injustice of the ruling class
may lead to revolution, but less often in Polities. Aristo-
cracies may also be ruined by an unprivileged class, or an
ambitious man of talent. Aristocracies tend to become
oligarchies. Also they are liable to gradual dissolution;
which is true of Polities as well (c. 7).

The best precautions against sedition are these : to avoid
illegality and frauds upon the unprivileged ; to maintain good
feeling between rulers and ruled ; to watch destructive agen-
cies ; to alter property qualifications from time to time ; to let
no individual or class become too powerful ; not to let magis-
tracies be a source of gain ; to beware of class-oppression (c. 8).
In all magistrates we should require loyalty, ability, and jus-
tice ; we should not carry the principle of the constitution

DAVIS C

1 8 Analysis

to extremes ; we should educate the citizens in the spirit of
a constitution (c. 9).

(d^ The causes which destroy and the means which pre-
serve a Monarchy must be considered separately. Let us
first distinguish between Tyranny and Kingship. Tyranny
combines the vices of Democracy and Oligarchy. Kingship
is exposed to the same defects as Aristocracy. But both
these kinds of Monarchy are especially endangered by the
insolence of their representatives and by the fear or contempt
which they inspire in others. Tyranny is weak against both
external and domestic foes ; Kingship is strong against inva-
sion, weak against sedition (c. 10). Moderation is the best
preservative of Kingship. Tyranny may rely on the traditional
expedients of demoralizing and dividing its subjects, or it may
imitate Kingship by showing moderation in expenditure, and
courtesy and temperance in social relations, by the wise
use of ministers, by holding the balance evenly between the
rich and poor (c. 11). But the Tyrannies of the past have
been short-lived.

Plato's discussion of revolutions in the Republic is inade-
quate ; e. g. he does not explain the results of a revolution
against a tyranny, and could not do so on his theory ; nor is
he correct about the cause of revolution in an Oligarchy ;
nor does he distinguish between the different varieties of
Oligarchy and Democracy (c. 12).

BOOK VI (VII).

cc. 1-8. Concerning the proper organization of Democracies

and Oligarchies.

(A) Democracies differ infer se (i) according to the character

of the citizen body, (2) according to the mode in which the

Analy

sis 19

characteristic features of democracy are combined (c. i).
Liberty is the first principle of democracy. The results of
liberty are that the numerical majority is supreme, and that
each man lives as he likes. From these characteristics we
may easily infer the other features of democracy (c. 2). In
oligarchies it is not the numerical majority, but the wealthier
men, who are supreme. Both these principles are unjust if
the supreme authority is to be absolute and above the law.
Both numbers and wealth should have their share of
influence. But it is hard to find the true principles of political
justice, and harder still to make men act upon them (c. 3).
Democracy has four species (cf. Bk. IV, c. 4). The best
is (i) an Agricultural Democracy, in which the magistrates
are elected by, and responsible to, the citizen body, while
each office has a property qualification proportionate to its
importance. These democracies should encourage agriculture
by legislation. The next best is (2) the Pastoral Democracy.
Next comes (3) the Commercial Democracy. Worst of all is
(4) the Extreme Democracy with manhood suffrage (c. 4).

It is harder to preserve than to found a Democracy. To
preserve it we must prevent the j oor from plundering the
rich ; we must not exhaust the public revenues by giving pay
for the performance of public duties; we must prevent the
growth of a pauper class (c. 5).

(B) The modes of founding Oligarchies call for little ex-
planation. Careful organization is the best way of preserving
these governments (c. 6). Much depends on the military
aiTangements ; oligarchs must not make their subjects too
powerful an element in the army. Admission to the governing
body should be granted on easy conditions. Office should be
made a burden, not a source of profit (c. 7).
c 2

2 o Analysis

Both in oligarchies and democracies the right arrangement
of offices is important. Some kinds of office are necessary in
every state; others are peculiai- to special types of state
(c. 8).

BOOK Vn (IV).

CO. r-3. The Summum Bonumfor ind'ivicluah and states.

Before constructing the ideal state we must know what
is the most desirable life for states and individuals. True
happiness flows from the possession of wisdom and virtue,
and not from the possession of external goods. But a
virtuous life must be equipped with external goods as
instruments. These laws hold good of both states and
individuals (c. i). But does the highest virtue consist in
contemplation or in action ? The states of the past have
lived for action in the shape of war and conquest. But war
cannot be regarded as a reasonable object for a state (c. 2).
A virtuous life implies activity, but activity may be speculative
as well as practical. Those are wrong who regard the life of
a practical politician as degrading. But again they are wrong
who treat political power as the highest good (c. 3).

cc. 4-12. A picture of the Ideal State.

We must begin by considering the population and the
territory. The former should be as small as we can
make it without sacrificing independence and the capacity
for a moral life. The smaller the population the more
manageable it will be (c. 4). The tenitory must be large
enough to supply the citizens with the means of living
liberally and temperately, with an abundance of leisure.

Analysis 2 1

The city should be in a central position (c. 5). Communica-
tion with the sea is desirable for economic and military
reasons ; but the moral effects of sea-trade are bad. If the
state has a marine, the port town should be at some distance
from the city (c. 6).

The character of the citizens should be a mean between that
of Asiatics and that of the northern races ; intelligence and
high spirit should be harmoniously blended as they are in
some Greek races (c. 7). We must distinguish the members
of the state from those who are necessary as its servants,
but no part of It. There must be men who are able to
provide food, to practise the arts, to bear arms, to carry
on the work of exchange, to supervise the state religion,
to exercise political and judicial functions (c. 8). But of
these classes we should exclude from the citizen body (i) the
mechanics, (2) the traders, (3) the husbandmen. Warriors,
rulers, priests remain as eligible for citizenship. The same
persons should exercise these three professions, but at
different periods of life. Ownership of land should be
confined to them (c. 9). Such a distinction between a ruling
and a subject class, based on a difference of occupation, is
nothing new. It still exists in Egypt, and the custom
of common meals In Crete and Italy proves that it formerly
existed there. Most of the valuable rules of politics have
been discovered over and over again in the course of history.

In dealing with the land of the state we must distinguish
between public demesnes and private estates. Both kinds
of land should be tilled by slaves or barbarians of a servile
disposition (c. 10). The site of the city should be chosen
with regard (i) to public health, (2) to political convenience,
(3) to strategic requirements. The ground-plan of the city

2 2 Analysis

should be regular enough for beauty, not so regular as to
make defensive warfare difficult. Walls are a practical neces-
sity (c. 1 1). It is well that the arrangement of the buildings
in the city should be carefully thought out (c. 12).

cc. 13-17. The Educational System of the Ideal State^ its a'lm^
a?id early stages.

The nature and character of the citizens must be determined
with reference to the kind of happiness which we desire them
to pursue. Happiness was defined in the Ethics as the perfect
exercise of virtue, the latter term being understood not in the
conditional, but in the absolute sense. Now a man acquires
virtue of this kind by the help of nature, habit, and reason
(c. 1 3). Habit and reason are the fruits of education, which
must therefore be discussed.

The citizens should be educated to obey when young
and to rule when they are older. Rule is their ultimate
and highest function. Since the good ruler is the same as
the good man, our education must be so framed as to produce
the good man. It should develope all man's powers and
fit him for all tlie activities of life ; but the highest powers
and the highest activities must be the supreme care of
education. An education which is purely military, like the
Laconian, neglects this principle (c, 14). The virtues of
peace (intellectual culture, temperance, justice) are the most
necessary for states and individuals ; war is nothing but
a means towards securing peace. But education must follow
the natural order of human development, beginning with the
body, dealing next with the appetites, and training the
intellect last of all (c. 15).

To produce a healthy physique the legislator must fix

Analysis 23

the age of marriage, regulate the physical condition of the
parents, provide for the exposure of infants, and settle the
duration of marriage (c. 16). He must also prescribe a
physical training for infants and young children. For their
moral education the very young should be committed to
overseers ; these should select the tales which they are told,
their associates, the pictures, plays, and statues which they
see. From five to seven years of age should be the period
of preparation for intellectual training (c. 17).

BOOK VIII (V).

CO. 1-7. The Ideal Education continued. Its Music and
Gymnastic.

Education should be under state-control and the same for
all the citizens (c. i). It should comprise those useful studies
which every one must master, but none which degrade the
mind or body (c. 2). Reading, writing, and drawing have
always been taught on the score of their utility ; gymnastic as
producing valour. Music is taught as a recreation, but it
serves a higher purpose. The noble employment of leisure
is the highest aim which a man can pursue ; and music is
valuable for this purpose. The same may be said of drawing,
and other subjects of education have the same kind of value

(c.3).

Gymnastic is the first stage of education ; but we must not
develope the valour and physique of our children at the
expense of the mind, as they do in Sparta. Until puberty,
and for three years after, bodily exercise should be light
(c. 4). Music, if it were a mere amusement, should not
be taught to children ; they would do better by listening

24 Analysis

to professionals. But music is a moral discipline and a
rational enjoyment (c. 5). By learning music children become
better critics and are given a suitable occupation. When of
riper age they should abandon music; professional skill is not
for them; nor should they be taught difficult instruments
(c. 6). The various musical harmonies should be used for
different purposes. Some inspire virtue, others valour, others
enthusiasm. The ethical harmonies are those which children
should learn. The others may be left to professionals. The
Dorian harmony is the best for education. The Phrygian is
bad ; but the Lydian may be beneficial to children.

Cetera desunt.

THE POLITICS

BOOK I O"^) ■

Every state is a community of some kind, and every •*■• -*■

r Ed.

community is established with a view to some good ; for Bekker,
mankind always act in order to obtain that which they 1252 a
think good. But, if all communities aim at some good,
the state or political community, which is the highest of all, I
and which embraces all the rest, aims, and in a greater
degree than any other, at the highest good.

Now there is an erroneous opinion ^ that a statesman, king, 2
householder, and master are the same, and that they differ,
not in kind, but only in the number of their subjects. For
example, the ruler over a few is called a master ; over more,
the manager of a household; over a still larger number,
a statesman or king, as if there were no difference between
a great household and a small state. The distinction which <^
is made between the king and the statesniaij is as follows:,. \
When the government is personal, the ruler is a king ; when,
according to the principles of the political science, the citizens
rule and are ruled in turn, then he is called a statesman. ^

But all this is a mistake ; for governments differ in kind,
as will be evident to any one who considers the matter
according to the method " which has hitherto guided us.
As in other departments of science, so in politics, the com-
pound should always be resolved into the simple elements or
least parts of the whole. We must therefore look at the

1 Cp. Plato, Politicus, 258 e toll. ' Cp. c. 8. § I.

f/f'^

26 Logical Analysis of the State

I. 1 elements of which the state is composed, in order that we
may see ^ in what they differ from one another, and whether
any scientific distinction can be diawn between the different
kinds of rule ^.

2 He who thus considers things in their first growth and
origin, whether a state or anything else, will obtain the

' 2 clearest view of them. In the first place (f)_there must be

a union of those who cannot exist without each other; for

example, of male and female, that the race may continue ; and

this is a union which is formed, not of deliberate purpose, but

I because, in common with other animals and with plants, man-

/ kind have a natural desire to leave behind them an image of

% ' themselves. And 1(2) there must be a union of natural ruler

and subject, that both may be preserved. For he who can
foresee with his mind is by nature intended to be lord and
master, and he who can work with his body is a subject,

3 and by nature a slave ; hence master and slave have the same
1252 b interest. Nature, however, has distinguished between the

female and the slave. For she is not niggardly, like the

; smith who fashions the Delphian knife for many uses ; she

makes each thing for a single use, and every instrument is

best made when intended for one and not for many uses.

4 But among barbarians no distinction is made between women
'^5' and slaves, because there is no natural ruler among them:

they are a community of slaves, male and female. Wherefore
the poets say, —
'It is meet that Hellenes should rule over barbarians'^;*

' Or, with Bernays, 'how the different kinds of lule differ from one
another, and generally whether any scientific result can be attained about
each one of them.'

" Eurip. Iphig. in Aulid. 1400.

Growth of the State 27

as if they thought that the barbarian and the slave were I.
by nature one.

Out of these two relationships between man and woman, 5
master and slave, the family liist arises, and Hesiod is right
when he says, — -

' First house and wife and an ox for the plough^,'
for the ox is the poor man's slave. The family is the associa- .
tion established by nature for the supply of men's every-day |
wants, and the members of it are called by Charondas ' com- |
panions of the cupboard' [o/ioo-iTrvors], and by Epiraenides
the Cretan, '* companions of the manger^' \ofxoKaiTovi\.
But when several families are united, and the association-^"
aims at something more than the supply of daily needs,
then comes into existence the villa^. And the most natural ^
form of the village appears to be that of a colony from the
family, composed of the children and grandchildren, who are
said to be ' suckled with the same milk.' And this is the
reason why Hellenic states were originally governed by
kings ; because the Hellenes were under royal rule before v-
they came together, as the barbarians still are. Every family
is ruled by the eldest, and therefore in the colonies of
the family the kingly form of government prevailed because
they were of the same blood. As Homer says [of the 7
Cyclopes] : —

' Each one gives law to his children and to his wives ^.'
For they lived dispersedly, as was the manner in ancient

• Op. et Di. 405.

^ Or, reading with the old translator (William of Moerbek) ofxO'
Kanvovs, ' companions of the hearth.'

* Od. Ix. 114, quoted by Plato, Law?, iii. 6S0, and in N. Eth. x. 9. § 13.

2 8 Man a 'Political Animal

I. 2 times. Wherefore men say that the Gods have a kino-,

jbecause they themselves either are or were in ancient times

|under the rule of a king. For they imagine, not only the

^forms of the Gods, but their ways of life to be like their

own.

^ When several villages are united in a single community,

perfect and large enough to be nearly or quite self-sufficing,

the state comes into existence, originating in the bare needs

, of life, and continuing in existence for the sake of a good

^life. And therefore, if the earlier forms of society are

natural, so is the state, for it is the end of them, and the

[completed] nature is the end. For what each thing is when

fully developed, we call its nature, whether we are speaking

9 of a man, a horse, or a family. Besides, the final cause and

.end of a thing is the best,^nd to be sdf-sufficina is the^ end

1253 4and the,best. — — .,.~..<...^. -....„,„„

^lence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature,
land that man is by nature ajgolitical animal. And he who by
nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either
above humanity, or below it ; he is the

' Tribeless, lawless, hearthless one,'

10 whom Homer ^ denounces — the outcast who is a lover of
war ; he may be compared to an unprotected piece in the
game of draughts.

Now the reason why man is more of a political animal
than bees or any other gregarious animals is evident. Nature,
as we often say, makes nothing in vain "^^ and man is the
only animal whom she has endowed with the gift of

1 1 speech ^ And whereas mere sound is but an indication

* 11. ix. 63. ^Cp. c. 8. §12. 3 cp yii_ j^. § 12.

I

'Man a Political Animal 29

of pleasure or pain, and is therefore found in other animals I. 2
(for their nature attains to the perception of pleasure and
pain and the intimation of them to one another, and no
further), the power of speech is intended to set forth the
expedient and inexpedient, and likewise the just and the
unjust. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone la
has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the '
association of living beings who have this sense makes a i
family and a state.

Thus the state is by nature clearly prior to the family
. and to the individual, since the whole is of necessity 13
prior to the part; for example, if the whole body be
destroyed, there will be no foot or hand, except in an Ch /i<^i '^i"
equivocal sense, as we might speak of a stone hand ; for f/> ^ V^

when destroyed the hand will be no better. But things are
defined by their working and power ; and we ought not
to say that they are the same when they are no longer
the same, but only that they have the same name. The 14
proof that the state is a creation of nature and prior to the
individual is that the individual, when isolated, is not self-
sufficing ; and therefore he is like a part in relation to the
whole. But he who is unable to live in society, or who has
no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a \
beast or a god : he is no part of a state. A social instinct is 1 5
implanted in all men by nature, and yet he who first founded '
the state was the greatest of benefactors. For man, when
perfected, is the best of animals, but, when separated from
law and justice, he is the worst of all ; since armed injustice 16
is the more dangerous, and he is equipped at birth with the
arms of intelligence and with moral qualities which he may
use for the worst ends. Wherefore, if he have not virtue, he

3 0 The Parts of the Household

I. 2 is the most unholy and the most savage of animals, and the most
! full of lust and gluttony. But justice is the bond of men in
states, and the administration of justice, which is the determina-
tion of what is just ^ is the principle of order in political society.
3 Seeing then that the state is made up of households, before
speaking of the state we must speak of the ^ management
1253 b of the household ^. The parts of the household are the
persons who compose it, and a complete household consists
s, of slaves and freemen. Now we should begin by examining
everything in its least elements ; and the first and least parts
of a family are master and slave, husband and wife, father
and children. We have therefore to consider what each

2 of these three relations is and ought to be : — I mean the
relation of master and servant, of husband and wife, and
thirdly of parent and cliild. [I say ya^iiKi] and reKvoTiotrjTCKT],
there being no words for the two latter notions which ade-

3 quately represent them.] And there is another element
of a household, the so-called art of money-making, which,
according to some, is identical with household management,
according to others, a principal part of it ; the nature of
this art will also have to be considered by us.

Let us first speak of master and slave, looking to the
needs of practical life and also seeking to attain some better

4 theory of their relation than exists at present. For some are
of opinion that the rule of a master is a science, and that the
management of a household, and the mastership of slaves,
and the political and royal rule, as I was saying at the out-
set', are all the same. Others affirm that the rule of a master

1 Cp. N. Eth. V. 6. § 4.

' Reading with the MSS. olKOVOfJ.ias.

° Plato in Pol. 258 E foil., referred to already in c. I. § 2.

Slavery — Necessary 3 i

over slaves is contrary to nature, and that the distinction I. 3
between slave and freeman exists by law only, and not
by nature ; and being an interference with nature is therefore
unjust.

Property is a part of the household, and therefore the art 4
of acquiring property is a part of the art of managing the n<
household ; for no man can live well, or indeed live at all,
unless he be provided with necessaries. And as in the arts
which have a definite sphere the workers must have their own
proper instruments for the accomplishment of their work, so
it is in the management of a household. Now, instruments a / i, L

are of various sorts ; some are living, others lifeless ; in the 7 — :

rudder, the pilot of a ship has a lifeless, in the look-out man, ^^ ULj^

a living instmment ; for in the arts the servant is a kind - '

of instrument. Thus, too, a possession is an instrument/

for maintaining life. And so, in the arrangement of the

family, a slave is a living possession, and property a number

of such instruments ; and the servant is himself an instrument,

which takes precedence of all other instruments. For if 3

every instrument could accomplish its own work, obeying or

anticipating the will of others, like the statues of Daedalus,

or the tripods of Hephaestus, which, says the poet ',

' of their own accord entered the assembly of the Gods ' ;

if, in like manner, the shuttle would weave and the plectrum
touch the lyre without a hand to guide them, chief workmen
would not want servants, nor masters slaves. Here, how- 1254 a
ever, another distinction must be drawn : the instruments ^
commonly so called are instraments of production, whilst
a possession is an instrument of action. The shuttle, for

' Kom. I!, xviii. 376.

3 2 Slavery — Is it also Natural^

I. 4 example, is not only of use, but something else is made by-
it, whereas of a garment or of a bed there is only the use.
Further, as production and action are different in kind,
and both require instruments, the instruments which they
5 employ must likewise diifer in kind. But life is action
land not pj-oduction, and therefore the slave is the minister of
faction [for he ministers to his master's life]. Again, a
possession is spoken of as a part is spoken of; for the part
is not only a part of something else, but wholly belongs
to it ; and this is also true of a possession. The master
is only the master of the slave ; he does not belong to
him, whereas the slave is not only the slave of his master,
but wholly belongs to him. Hence we see what is the
nature and office of a slave ; he who is by nature not his
• own but another's and yet a man, is by nature a slave ; and
he may be said to belong to another who, being a human
being, is also a possession. And a possession may be

1 defined as an instrument of action, separable from the
' possessor.

6 But is there any one thus intended by nature to be a slave,
sj^ and for whom such a condition is expedient and right, or
rather is not all slavery a violation of nature ?

There is no difficulty in answering this question, on

2 grounds both of reason and of fact. For that some should
rule and others be ruled is a thing, not only necessary, but

1 expedient ; ;from the hour of their birth, some are marked
out for subjection, others for rule.

And whereas there are many kinds both of rulers and
subjects, that rule is the better which is exercised over better
subjects — for example, to rule over men is better than to
rule over wild beasts. The work is better which is executed

Slavery — Justified 3 3

by better workmen ; and where one man rules and another is I. 5
ruled, they may be said to have a work. In all things
which form a composite whole and which are made up of
parts, whether continuous or discrete, a distinction between
the ruling and the subject element comes to light. Such a 4
duality exists in living creatures, but not in them only ;
it originates in the constitution of the universe ; even in
things which have no life, there is a ruling principle, as
^ in musical hai mony ^ But we are wandering from the
subject. We will, therefore, restrict ourselves to the living
creature which, in the first place, consists of soul and body :
and of these two, the one is by nature the ruler, and the
other the subject. But then we must look for the intentions 5
of nature in things which retain their nature, and not in
things which are corrupted. And therefore we must study
the man who is in the most perfect state both of body and
soul, for in him we shall see the true relation of the two ;
although in bad or corrupted natures the body will often 1254 b
appear to rule over the soul, because they are in an evil
and unnatural condition. First then we may observe in living 6
creatures both a despotical and a constitutional rule ; for the
sod rules the body with a despotical rule, whereas the i|itel- [
lect rules the appetites with a constitutional and royal rule.'
And it is clear that the rule of the soul over the body, and
of the mind and the rational element over the passionate is
natural and expedient ; whereas the equality of the two or the
rule of the inferior is always hurtful. The same holds good 7
of animals as well as of men ; for tame animals have a better
nature than wild, and all tame animals are better off" when
they are ruled by man ; for then they are preserved. Again,
^ Or, ' of harmony [in music].'

DAVIS D

34 Slavery — Both Sides of the ^lestion

I. 5 the male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and
the one rules, and the other is ruled ; this principle, of

gmecessity, extends to ali mankind. Where then there is such
a difference as that between soul and body, or between men
and animals (as in the case of those whose business is to use
their body, and who can do nothing better), the lower sort
are by nature slaves, and it is better for them as for all

9 inferiors that they should be under the rule of a master. For
he who can be, and therefore is anothei's, and he who
participates in reason enough to apprehend, but not to have,

iKreason, is a slave by nature. Whereas the lower animals
cannot even apprehend reason ; they obey their instincts.
And indeed the use made of slaves and of tame animals
is not very different ; for both with their bodies minister to

ID the needs of life. Nature would like to distinguish betweei?
the bodies of freemen and slaves, making the one strong
for servile labour, the other upright, and although useless
for such services, useful for political life in the arts both
of war and peace. But this does not hold universally: for
I some slaves have the souls and others have the bodies of
'■ freemen. And doubtless if men differed from one another in
the mere forms of their bodies as much as the statues of the
Gods do from men, all would acknowledge that the inferior class

1 1 should be slaves of the superior. And if there is a difference

in the body, how much more in the soul ! But the beauty of the

1255 a body is seen, whereas the beauty of the soul is not seen. It_is

clear, then, that some men are by nature free, and others slaves,

I and that for these latter slavery is both expedient and right.

6 But that those who take the opposite view have in a certain
way right on their side, may be easily seen. For the words
slavery and slave are used in two senses. There is a slave

i

^'***''*^ \ ^""^ ft-'-re.^cX/- ,«y^«.r

Slavery — Both Sides of the Question 3 y

or slavery by law as well as by nature. The law of which I. 6
I speak is a sort of convention, according to which whatever
is taken in war is supposed to belong to the victors. But a
this right many jurists impeach, as they would an orator who
brought forward an unconstitutional measure : they detest the
notion that, because one man has the power of doing violence
and is superior in brute strength, another shall be his slave
and subject. Even among philosophers there is a difference
of opinion. The origin of the dispute, and the reason why 3
the arguments cross, is as follows : Virtue, when furnished
with means, may be deemed to have the greatest power of
doing violence : and as superior power is only found where
there is superior excellence of some kind, power is thought to
imply virtue. But does it likewise imply justice ? — that is the
question. And, in order to make a distinction between them, 4
some assert that justice is benevolence : to which others reply
that justice is nothing more than the rule of a superior. If
the two views are regarded as antagonistic and exclusive [i. e.
if the notion that justice is benevolence excludes the idea of
a just rule of a superior], the alternative [viz. that no one
should rule over others ^] has no force or plausibility, because
it implies that not even the superior in virtue ought to rule, or
be master. Some, clinging, as they think, to a principle of 5
justice (for law and custom are a sort of justice), assume that
slavery in war is justified by law, but they are not consistent.
For what if the cause of the war be unjust ? No one would
ever say that he is a slave who is unworthy to be a slave.
Were this the case, men of the highest rank would be slaves
and the children of slaves if they or their parents chance to
have been taken captive and sold. Wherefore Hellenes do 6

* Cp. § 2.
D 2

^6 When Natural^ when 'Dnnafural

I. 6 not like to call themselves slaves, but confine the term to

■^ barbarians. Yet, in using this language, they really mean the

natural slave of whom we spoke at first ; for it must be

admitted that some are slaves everywhere, others nowhere.

7 The same principle applies to nobility. Hellenes regard them-
selves as noble everywhere, and not only in their own country,
but they deem the barbarians noble only when at home,

I thereby implying that there are two sorts of nobility and
;, freedom, the one absolute, the other relative. The Helen

of Theodectes says : —

' Who would presume to call me servant who am on both

sides sprung from the stem of the Gods ? '

8 What does this mean but that they distinguish freedom and
slavery, noble and humble birth, by the two principles of

1255 b good and evil ? They think that as men and animals beget
i men and animals, so from good men a good man springs.
I But this is what nature, though she may intend it, often fails
to accomplish.

9 We see then that there is some foundation for this differ-
ence of opinion, and that some actual slaves and freemen are
not so by nature, and also that there is in some cases a marked
distinction between the two classes, rendering it expedient and
right for the one to be slaves and the others to be masters :
the one practising obedience, the others exercising the autho-

lo rity which nature intended them to have. The abuse of this
authority is injurious to both ; for the inteiests of part and
whole ', of body and soul, are the same, and the slave is a part
of the master, a living but separated part of his bodily frame.
Wheie the relation between them is natural they arc friends

1 Cp. c. 4. § 5.

The T^iJe of the Household 37

and have a common interest, but where it rests merely on law I.
and force the reverse is true.

The previous remarks are quite enough to show that the 7
rule of a master is not a constitutional rule, and therefore that
all the different kinds of rule are not, as some affirm, the
same with each other ^ For there is one rule exercised over
subjects who are by nature free, another over subjects who
are by nature slaves. The rule of a household is a monarchy,
for every house is under one head : whereas constitutional rule
is a government of freemen and equals. The master is not 2
called a master because he has science, but because he is of
a certain character, and the same remark applies to the slave
and the freeman. Still there may be a science for the master
and a science for the slave. The science of the slave would
be such as the man of Syracuse taught, who made money by
instructing slaves in their ordinary duties. And such a know- 3
ledge may be carried further, so as to include cookery and
similar menial arts. For some duties are of the more neces-
sary, others of the more honourable sort ; as the proverb says,
' slave before slave, master before master.' But all such 4
branches of knowledge are servile. There is likewise a science
of the master, which teaches the use of slaves ; for the master
as such is concerned, not with the acquisition, but with the use
of them. Yet this so-called science is not anything great or
wonderful ; for the master need only know how to order that
which the slave must know how to execute. Hence those 5
who are in a position which places them above toil, have
stewards who attend to their households while they occupy
themselves with philosophy or with politics. But the art ot
acquiring slaves, I mean of justly acquiring them, differs both
' Plato Pol. 25S E loll., referreii to already in c. I. § 2.

3 8 Property — What Place in the Household

I. 7 from the art of the master and the art of the slave, being
a species of hunting or war '. Enough of the distinction
between master and slave.
1256 a Let us now enquire into property generally, and into the
art of money-making, in accordance with our usual method
[of resolving a whole into its parts ^], for a slave has been
shown to be a part of property. The first question is whether
the art of money-making is the same with the art of managing
a household or a part of it, or instrumental to it ; and if the
last, whether in the way that the art of making shuttles is
instrumental to the art of weaving, or in the way that the
casting of bronze is instrumental to the art of the statuary, for
they are not instrumental in the same way, but the one pro-

2 vides tools and the other material ; and by material I mean
the substratum out of which any work is made ; thus wool is
the material of the weaver, bronze of the statuary. Now it
is easy to see that the art of household management is not

^ identical with the art of money-making, for the one uses the

I material which the other provides. And the art which uses

household stores can be no other than the art of household

management. There is, however, a doubt whether the art of

money-making is a part of household management or a distinct

3 art. [They appear to be connected] ; for the money-maker
has to consider whence money and property can be procured ;
but there are many sorts of property and wealth :— there is
husbandry and the care and provision of food in general ; are

4 these parts of the money-making art or distinct arts ? Again,
there are many sorts of food, and therefore there are many
kinds of lives both of animals and men ; they must all have
food, and the differences in their food have made differences

' Cp. vii. 14. § 21. " Cp. c. I. § 3.

Property— ]{ests on a Physical Basts 39

in their ways of life. For of beasts, some are gregarious, I. 8
others are soUtary ; they live in the way which is best adapted 5
to sustain them, accordingly as they are carnivorous or her-
bivorous or omnivorous : and their habits are determined for
them by nature in such a manner that they may obtain with
greater facility the food of their choice. But, as different
individuals have different tastes, the same things are not
naturally pleasant to all of them ; and therefore the lives of
carnivorous or herbivorous animals further differ among them-
selves. In the lives of men too there is a great difference. 6 -
The laziest are shepherds, who lead an idle life, and get
their subsistence without trouble from tame animals; their
flocks having to wander from place to place in search of pas-
ture, they are compelled to follow them, cultivating a sort of
living farm. Others support themselves by hunting, which is 7
of different kinds. Some, for example, are pirates, others,
who dwell near lakes or marshes or rivers or a sea in which
there are fish, are fishermen, and others live by the pursuit of
birds or wild beasts. The greater number obtain a living from
the fruits of the soil. Such are the modes of subsistence 8
which prevail among those ^ whose industry is employed
immediately upon the products of nature ^, and whose food is
not acquired by exchange and retail trade — there is the shep- 1256 b
herd, the husbandman, the pirate, the fisherman, the hunter.
Some gain a comfortable maintenance out of two employ-
ments, eking out the deficiencies of one of them by another :
thus the life of a shepherd may be combined with that of
a brigand, the life of a farmer with that of a hunter. Other 9
modes of life are similarly combined in any way which the
needs of men may require. Property, in the sense of a bare
* Or, ' whose labour is personal.'

40 Property — Natural Acquisition

I. 8 livelihood, seems to be given by nature herself to all, both

10 when they are first born, and when they are grown up. For
some animals biing forth, together with their offspring, so
much food as will last until they are able to supply themselves ;
of this the vermiparous or oviparous animals are an instance ;
and the viviparous animals have up to a certain time a supply
of food for their young in themselves, which is called milk.

1 1 In like manner we may infer that, after the birth of animals,
plants exist for their sake, and that the other animals exist
for the sake of man, the tame for use and food, the wild, if
not all, at least the greater part of them, for food, and for the

12 provision of clothing and various instruments. Now if nature
makes nothing incomplete, and nothing in vain, the inference
must be that she has made all animals and plants for the sake
of man. And so, in one point of view, the art of war is
a natural art of acquisition, for it includes hunting, an art
which we ought to practise against wild beasts, and against
men who, though intended by nature to be governed, will not
submit ; for war of such a kind is naturally just ^.

13 Of the art of acquisition then there is one kind ^ which is
natural and is a part of the managemenr^f a households
Either we must suppose the necessaries of life to exist pre-
viously, or the art of household management must provide
a store of them for the common use of the family or state.

14 They are the elements of true wealth ; for the amount of
property which is needed for a good life is not unlimited,
although Solon in one of his poems says that,

' No bound to riches has been fixed for man '.*

* Cp. c. 7. § 5, and vii. 14. § 21,

2 Or, with Bernays, ' which by nature is a part of the management
of a household.' ^ Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Solon, 13. v. 71.

Property — Money-making 41

But there is a boundary fixed, just as there is in the arts ; for I. 8
the instruments of any art are never unlimited, either in '5
number or size, and wealth may be defined as a number of \
instruments to be used in a household or in a state. And so I
we see that there is a natural art of acquisition which is prac-
tised by managers of households and by statesmen, and what
is the reason of this.

Theie is another variety of the art of acquisition which is 9
commonly and rightly called the art of making money, and 1257 a
has in fact suggested the notion that wealth and property have
no limit. Being nearly connected with the preceding, it is
often identified with it. But though they are not very different,
neither are they the same. The kind already described is
given by nature, the other is gained by experience and art.

Let us begin our discussion of the question with the fol- 2
lowing considerations : —

Of everything which we possess there are two uses : both
belong to the thing as such, but not in the same manner, for
one is the proper, and the other the improper or secondary
use of it. For example, a shoe is used for wear, and is used
for exchange ; both are uses of the shoe. He who gives 3
a shoe in exchange for money or food to him who wants
one, does indeed use the shoe as a shoe, but this is not its
proper or primary purpose, for a shoe is not made to be an
object of barter. The same may be said of all possessions,
for the art of exchange extends to all of them, and it 4
arises at first in a natural manner from the circumstance
that some have too little, others too much. Hence we may
infer that retail trade is not a natural part of the art of money- ■
making ; had it been so, men would have ceased to exchange
when they had enough. And in the first community, which 5

42 Property — Coined Mofiey

9 is the family, this art is obviously of no use, but only begins
to be useful when the society increases. For the members
of the family originally had all things in common ; in a more
divided state of society they ' still shared in many things, but
they were different things ^ which they had to give in ex-
change for what they wanted, a kind of barter which is still

6 practised among barbarous nations who exchange with one
another the necessaries of life and nothing more ; giving and
receiving wine, for example, in exchange for corn and the

(like. This sort of barter is not part of the money-making
[art and is not contrary to nature, but is needed for the satis-

7 faction of men's natural wants. The other or more complex
form of exchange grew out of the simpler. When the in-

i habitants of one country became more dependent on those of
another, and they imported what they needed, and exported

8 the surplus, money necessarily came into use. For the various
necessaries of life are not easily carried about, and hence men
agreed to employ in their dealings with each other something
which was intrinsically useful and easily applicable to the
purposes of life, for example, iron, silver, and the like. Of
this the value was at first measured by size and weight, but in
process of time they put a stamp upon it, to save the trouble
of weighing and to mark the value.

1257 b When the use of coin had once been discovered, out of the
" barter of necessary articles arose the other art of money-
making, namely, retail trade ; which was at first probably
a simple matter, but became more complicated as soon as men
learned by experience whence and by what exchanges the

10 greatest profit might be made. Originating in the use of coin,
the art of money-making is generally thought to be chiefly

' Or, more siniply, ' shared in many more things.'

Property : True Notion of Wealth 43

concerned with it, and to be the art which produces wealth I. 0
and money ; having to consider how they may be accumulated.
Indeed, wealth is assumed by many to be only a quantity of
coin, because the art of money-making and retail trade are
concerned with coin. Others maintain that coined money is ii
a mere sham, a thing not natural, but conventional only,
which would have no value or use for any of the purposes of
daily life if another commodity were substituted by the users.
And, indeed, he who is rich in coin may often be in want of >^
necessary food. But how can that be wealth of which a man
may havs a great abundance and yet perish with hunger, like
Midas in the fable, whose insatiable prayer turned everything
that was set before him into gold ?

Men seek after a better notion of wealth and of the art of 13
making money than the mere acquisition of coin, and they
are right. For natural wealth and the natural art of money- i
making are a different thing ; in their true form they are part
of the management of a household ; whereas retail trade is
the art of producing wealth, not in every way, but by
exchange. And it seems to be concerned with coin ; for
coin is the starting-point and the goal of exchange. And 13
there is no bound to the wealth which springs from this art
of money-making ^ As in the art of medicine there is no
limit to the pursuit of health, and as in the other arts there is
no limit to the pursuit of their several ends, for they aim
at accomplishing their ends to the uttermost; (but of the
means there is a limit, for the end is always the limit), so,
too, in this art of money-making there is no limit of the end,
which is wealth of the spurious kind, and the acquisition of
money. But the art of household management has a limit; i^
1 Cp. c. 8, § 14.

44 '^ioney -making in Excess '\)nnatiiral

I. 9 the unlimited acquisition of money is not its business. And,

; therefore, in one point of view, all wealth must have a limit ;

h nevertheless, as a matter of fact, we find the opposite to be

the case ; for all money-makers increase their hoard of coin

without limit. The source of the confusion is the near

15 connexion between the two kinds of money-making; in either,
the instrument [i. e. wealth] is the same, although the use is
different, and so they pass into one another ; for each is a use

V of the same property \ but with a difference : accumulation is

\ the end in the one case, but there is a further end in the other.

Hence some persons are led to believe that making money is

the object of household management, and the whole idea of

their lives is that they ought either to increase their money

16 without limit, or at any rate not to lose it. The origin of
1258 a this disposition in men is that they are intent upon living only,

and not upon living well ; and, as their desires are unlimited,
thev also desire that the means of gratifying them should be
without limit. Even those who aim at a good life seek the
means of obtaining bodily pleasures ; and, since the enjoyment
of these appears to depend on property, they are absorbed in
making money: and so there arises the second species of

17 money-making. For, as their enjoyment is in excess, they
seek an art which produces the excess of enjoyment ; and, if
they are not able to supply their pleasures by the art of
money-making, they try other arts, using in turn every faculty
in a manner contrary to nature. The quality of courage, for
example, is not intended to make money, but to inspire con-
fidence; neither is this the aim of the general's or of the
physician's art ; but the one aims at victory and the other at

18 health. Nevertheless, some men turn every quality or art

' Reading KTqctaiz xpf,<JiS.

Movey-makin^: the T^rue Kjnd 45-

into a means of making money ; this they conceive to be I. 9
the end, and to the promotion of the end all things must
contribute.

Thus, then, we have considered the art of money-making,
which is unnecessary, and why men want it ; and also the
necessary art of money- making, which we have seen to be
different from the other, and to be a natural part of the art of
managing a household, concerned with the provision of food,
not, however, like the former kind, unlimited, but having
a limit.

And we have found the answer to our original question ^, 10
Whether the art of money-making is the business of the
manager of a household and of the statesman or not their
business ? — viz. that it is an art which is presupposed by them.
For political science does not make men, but takes them from
nature and uses them ; and nature provides them with food
from the element of earth, air, or sea. At this stage begins
the duty of the manager of a household, who has to order the
things which nature supplies ; — he may be compared to the 2
weaver who has not to make but to use wool, and to know
what sort of wool is good and serviceable or bad and un-
serviceable. Were this otherwise, it would be difficult to see
why the art of money-making is a part of the management
of a household and the art of medicine not ; for surely the
members of a household must have health just as they must
have life or any other necessary. And as from one point 3
of view the master of the house and the ruler of the state
have to consider about health, from another point of view not
they but the physician ; so in one way the art of household
management, in another way the subordinate art, has to
» Cp. c. S. § I.

4<? Kinds of 'Nloney-making

I. 10 consider about money. But, strictly speaking, as I have

already said, the means of life must be provided beforehand

by nature ; for the business of nature is to furnish food to

that which is born, and the food of the offspring always

A remains over in the parent'. Wherefore the art of making

» money out of fruits and animals is always natural.

Of the two sorts of money-making one, as I have just

1 said, is a part of household management, the other is retail
trade : the former necessary and honourable, the latter a kind

1258b of exchange which is justly censured; for it is unnatural,
and a mode by which men gain from one another. The most
hated sort, and with the greatest reason, is usury, which
makes a gain out of money itself, and not from the natural use
5 of it. For money was intended to be used in exchange, but
inot to increase at interest. And this term usury [toko?],
which means the birth of money from money, is applied
to the breeding of money because the offspring resembles the
parent. Wherefore of all modes of making money this is
the most unnatural.
11 Enough has been said about the theory of money-making ;
we will now proceed to the practical part. '^ The discussion
of such matters is not unworthy of philosophy, but to be
engaged in them practically is illiberal and irksome I The
j^eful parts of money-making are, first, the knowledge of
live-stock,— which are most profitable, and where, and
how, — as, for example, what sort of horses or sheep or
oxen or any other animals are most likely to give a return.

2 A man ought to know which of these pay better than others,

> Cp. c. 8. § lo.

* Or, ' We are free to speculate about them, but in practice we are
limited by circumstances.' (Bernays.)

K^nds of Money-making 47

and which pay best in particular places, for some do better in 1. 11
one place and some in another. Secondly, husbandry, which ^

may be either tillage or planting, and the keeping of bees and
of fish, or fowl, or of any animals which may be useful to
man. These are the divisions of the true or proper art of 3
money- making and come first. Of the other, which consists
in exchange, the first and most important division is commerce |

(of which there are three kinds — commerce by sea, commerce \
by land, selling in shops — these again differing as they are '
safer or more profitable), the second is ^ usuryj the third,
service for hire — of this, one kind is employed in the 4
mechanical arts, the other in unskilled and bodily labour.
There is still a third sort of money-making intermediate ':'

between this and the first or natural mode which is partly
natural, but is also concerned with exchange of the fruits and
other products of the earth. Some of these latter, although
they bear no fruit, are nevertheless profitable; for example,
wood and minerals. The art of mining, by which minerals 5
are obtained, has many branches, for there are various kinds
of things dug out of the earth. Of the several divisions of
money-making I now speak generally; a minute considera-
tion of them might be useful in practice, but it would be
tiresome to dwell upon them at greater length nov/.

Those occupations are most truly arts in which there is 5
the least element of chance ; they are the meanest in which
the body is 'most deteriorated, the most servile in which there :
is the greatest use of the body, and the illiberal in which
there is the least need of excellence.

Works have been written upon these subjects by various 7
persons; for example, by Chares the Parian, and Apollodorus
the Lemnian, who have treated of Tillage and Planting,

48 Economic Tales

I. 11 while others have treated of other branches ; any one who

1259 a cares for such matters may refer to their writings. It

would be well also to collect the scattered stories of the ways

in which individuals have succeeded in amassing a fortune;

8 for all this is useful to persons who value the art of making
money. There is the anecdote of Thales the Milesian and
his financial device, which involves a principle of universal
application, but is attributed to him on account of his reputa-

9 tion for wisdom. He was reproached for his poverty,
which was supposed to show that philosophy was of no use.
According to the story, he knew by his skill in the stars
while it was yet winter that there would be a great harvest of
olives in the coming year ; so, having a little capital, he gave
earnest-money for the use of all the olive-presses in Chios and
Miletus, which he hired at a low price because no one bid
against him. When the harvest-time came, and many wanted
them all at once and of a sudden, he let them out at any rate
which he pleased, and made a quantity of money. Thus he
showed the world that philosophers can easily be rich if

10 they like, but that their ambition is of another sort. He is
supposed to have given a striking proof of his wisdom, but, as
I was saying, his device for getting money is of universal
application, and is nothing but the creation of a monopoly.
It is an art often practised by cities when they are in want of
money ; they make a monopoly of provisions.

11 There was a man of Sicily, who, having money deposited
with him, bought up all the iron from the iron mines ; after-
wards, when the merchants from their various markets came
to buy, he was the only seller, and without much increasing

12 the price he gained 200 per cent. Which when Dionysius
heard, he told him that he might take away his money, but

Household Government 49

that he must not remain at Syracuse, for he thought that the I- H
man had discovered a way of making money which was
injurious to his own interests. He had the same idea ' as
Thales ; they both contrived to create a monopoly for them-
selves. And statesmen ought to know these things ; for a 13
state is often as much in want of money and of such devices
for obtaining it as a household, or even more so ; hence some
public men devote themselves entirely to finance.

Of household management we have seen ^ that there are 12
three parts — one is the rule of a master over slaves, which
has been discussed already ', another of a father, and the_^
third of a husband. A husband and father rules over wifej
and children, both free, but the rule differs, the rule over'
his children being a royal, over his wife^a^oginstitutipnal rule. 1259 b
For although there may be exceptions to the order of nature,-"
the male is by nature fitter for command than the female, just ^
as the elder and full-grown is superior to the younger and
more immature. But in most constitutional states the citizens 2
rule and are ruled by turns, for the idea of a constitutional
state implies that the natures of the citizens are equal, and
do not differ at all *. Nevertheless, when one rules and the
other is ruled we endeavour to create a difference of outward
forms and modes of address and titles of respect, which may
be illustrated by the saying of Amasis about his foot-pan ^.
The relation of the male to the female is of this kind, but 3
there the inequality is permanent. The rule of a father over j
his children is royal, for he receives both love and the respect '
due to age, exercising a kind of royal power. And therefore

^ Reading evprjfia with Bernays. ^ Cp. c. 3. § i.

^ Cp. c. 3-7. ■• Cp. ii. 2. § 6; iii. 17. § 4.

* Herod, ii. 172, and note on this passage.

DAVIS E

JO Virtue in the Subject Classes

1. 12 Homer has appropriately called Zeus ' father of Gods and
men,' because he is the king of them all. For a king is the
natural superior of his subjects, but he should be of the same
kin or kind with them, and such is the relation of elder and
younger, of father and son.
13 Thus it is clear that household management attends more
to men than to the acquisition of inanimate things, and to
human excellence more than to the excellence of property
which we call wealth, and to the virtue of freemen more than
a to the virtue of slaves. A question may indeed be raised,
whether there is any excellence at all in a slave beyond merely
instrumental and ministerial qualities — whether he can have
the virtues of temperance, courage, justice, and tlie like ; or
whether slaves possess only bodily and ministerial qualities.
And, whichever way we answer the question, a difficulty

3 arises ; for, if they have virtue, in what will they differ from
freemen ? On the other hand, since they are men and share
in reason, it seems absurd to say that they have no virtue.
A similar question may be raised about women and children,
whether they too have virtues : ought a woman to be tem-
perate and brave and just, and is a child to be called temperate,

4 and intemperate, or not ? So in general we may ask about
the natural ruler, and the natural subject, whether they have
the same or different virtues. For a noble nature is equally
required in both, but if so, why should one of them always
rule, and the other always be ruled .'' Nor can we say that
this is a question of degree, for the difference between ruler

. and subject is a difference of kind, and therefore not of
degree ; yet how strange is the supposition that the one

5 ought, and that the other ought not, to have virtue ! For if
the ruler is intemperate and unjust, how can he rule well ?

yirtues not the same for All 5- 1

if the subject, how can he obey well ? If he be licentious I. 13
and cowardly, he will certainly not do his duty. It is evident, .^'-^^^ *
therefore, that both of them must have a share of virtue, but
varying according to their various natures. And this is at 6
once indicated by the soul, in which one part naturally rules,
and the other is subject, and the virtue of the ruler we main-
tain to be different from that of the subject ; — the one being
the virtue of the rational, and the other of the irrational part.
Now, it is obvious that the same principle applies generally,
and therefore almost all things rule and are ruled according to
nature. But the kind of rule differs ; — the freeman rules over 7
the slave after another manner from that in which the male
rules over the female, or the man over the child ; although
the parts of the soul are present in all of them, they are pre-
sent in different degrees. For the slave has no deliberative %
faculty at all ; the woman has, but it is ^ without authority ^,
and the child has, but it is immature. So it must necessarily 8
be with the moral virtues also ; all may be supposed to partake
of them, but only in such manner and degree as is required by
each for the fulfilment of his duty. Hence the ruler ought
to have moral virtue in perfection, for his duty is entirely
that of a master artificer, and the master artificer is reason ;
the subjects, on the other hand, require only that measure of
virtue which is proper to each of them. Clearly, then, moral 9 ^*-\ lo^.
virtue belongs to all of them ; but the temperance of a man '
and of a woman, or the courage and justice of a man and of
a woman, are not, as Socrates maintained'-, the same; the(
courage of a man is shown in commanding, of a woman in '■
obeying. And this holds of all other virtues, as will be more 10
clearly seen if we look at them in detail, for those who say
* Or, with Bernays, ' incoixlusive.' 2 pjajo Meno, 71-73.

E 2

f2 The Slave and the Artisan

I. 13 generally that virtue consists in a good disposition of the
soul, or in doing rightly, or the like, only deceive themselves.
Far better than such definitions is their mode of speaking,

11 who, like Georgias ^, enumerate the virtues. All classes
must be deemed to have their special attributes ; as the poet
says of women,

'Silence is a woman's glory'','

but this is not equally the glory of man. The child is imper-
fect, and therefore obviously his virtue is not relative to him-

12 self alone, but to the perfect man and to his teacher^, and in
like manner the virtue of the slave is relative to a master.
Now we determined that a slave is useful for the wants of

lllife, and therefore he will obviously require only so much

s virtue as will prevent him from failing in his duty through

cowardice and intemperance. Some one will ask whether, if

what we are saying is true, virtue will not be required also in

the artisans, for they often fail in their work through miscon-

13 duct. But is there not a great difference in the two cases?
For the slave shares in his master's life ; the artisan is less
closely connected with him, and only attains excellence in
proportion as he becomes a slave, [i. e. is under the direction
of a master]. The meaner sort of mechanic has a special

1280 b and separate slavery; and whereas the slave exists by nature,

14 not so the shoemaker or other artisan. It is manifest, then^

fthat the master ought to be the source of excellence in the
slave ; but not merely because he possesses the art which trains
him in his duties *. Wherefore they are mistaken who forbid
us to converse with slaves and say that we should employ

* Plato Meno, 71-73. ^ Soph. Aj. 293.

* ' His father who guides him ' (Bernays), * Cp. c. 7. § 4.

End of Preliminary Enquiry 5-3

command only *, for slaves stand even more in need of admoni- I. 13
tion than children.

The relations of husband and wife, parent and child, their 15
several virtues, what in their intercourse with one another is
good, and what is evil, and how we may pursue the good and
escape the evil, will have to be discussed when we speak of
the different forms of government. For, inasmuch as every
family is a part of a state, and these relationships are the
parts of a family, the virtue of the part must have regard to
the virtue of the whole. And therefore women and children
must be trained by education with an eye to the state "^^ if the
virtues of either of them are supposed to make any difference
in the virtues of the state. And they must make a difference : 16
for the children grow up to be citizens, and lialf the free
persons in a state are women ^.

Of these matters, enough has been said ; of what remains, 14
let us speak at another time. Regarding, then, our present
enquiry as complete, we will make a new beginning. And,
first, let us examine the various theories of a perfect state.

^ Plato Laws, vi. 777. * Cp. v. 9. §§ 11-15 ; viii. i. § i,

' Plato Laws, vi. 781 n.

0\ (K**W ^ *

BOOK lJ/%,/^ hi)

II. 1 Our purpose is to consider what form of political commu-
nity is best of all for those who are most able to realize their
ideal of life. We must therefore examine not only this but
other constitutions, both such as actually exist in well-governed
states, and any theoretical forms which are held in esteem ;
that what is good and useful may be brought to light. And
let no one suppose that in seeking for something beyond them
^ we at all want to philosophize at the expense of truth ^ ; we
only undertake this enquiry because all the constitutions with
which we are acquainted are faulty.

2 We will begin with the natural beginning of the subject.
Three alternatives are conceivable : The members of a state

» must either have (i) all things or (2) nothing in common, or

' (3) some things in common and some not. That they should

have nothing in common is clearly impossible, for the state is

a community, and must at any rate have a common place —

126.1 a one city will be in one place, and the citizens are those who

3 share in that one city. But should a well-ordered state have
all things, as far as may be, in common, or some only and
not others ? For the citizens might conceivably have wives
and children and property in common, as Socrates proposes
in the Republic of Plato ^. Which is better, our present
condition, or the proposed new order of society ?

^ Or, as Bcrnavs, taking iravrco? with aocJH^eaOat PovXofiivwv, ' we
are anxious to make a sophistical display at any cost.'
* Rep. V. -157 c.

^•»-\y Jl^Hti,H^ ■ Lrvu.rnu.it.caut

U\. K^lf^.,

False Conception of Unity yy

There are many difficulties in the community of women. II. 2
The principle on which Socrates rests the necessity of such /^^

an institution does not appear to be established by his argu-
niei^ ; and then again as a means to the end which he ascribes
to the state, takeu literally, it is impossible, and how we are to
limit and qualify it is nowhere precisely stated. I am speak- a
ing of the premiss from which the argument of Socrates pro-
ceeds, 'that the greater the unity of the state the better.' Is Ch
it not obvious that a state may at length attain such a degree g*://. cA. S §li.
of unity as to be no longer a state ? — since the nature of a "T '
state is to be a plurality, and in tending to greater unity, from
being a state, it becomes a family, and from being a family,
an individual ; for the family may be said to be more one
than the state, and the individual than the family. So that
we ought not to attain this greatest unity even if we could, for
it would be the destruction of the state. Again, a state is 3 •_ ^
not made up only of so many men, but of different kinds of
men ; for similars do not constitute a state. It is not like
a military alliance, of which the usefulness depends upon
its quantity even where there is no difference in quality.
Foi in that mutual protection is the end aimed at; and the
question is the same as about the scales of a balance : which
is the heavier ?

In like manner, a state differs from a nation, whenever in
a nation the people are not dispersed in villages, but are in
the condition of the Arcadians ; in a state the elements out of
which the unity is to be formed differ in kind. Wherefore 4
the principle of reciprocity \ as I have already remarked in
the Ethics ^, is the salvation of states. And among freemen
and equals this is a principle which must be maintained, for

* Or, ' reciprocal proportion.' ' N. Eth. v. S. § 6.

j'6 Plato's 1{epuhlic:

II. 2 they cannot all rule together, but must change at the end of
a year or some other period of time or in some order of suc-

5 cession. The result is that upon this plan they all govern ;
[but the manner of government is] just as if shoemakers and
carpenters were to exchange their occupations, and the same
persons did not always continue shoemakers and carpenters.

6 And it is clearly better that, as in business, so also in politics
(there should be continuance of the same persons where this

1261 b'is possible. But where this is not possible by reason of the
natural equality of the citizens, and it would be unjust that
any one should be excluded from the government (whether
to govern be a good thing or a bad ^), then it is better,
instead of all holding power, to adopt a principle of rotation,
equals giving place to equals, as the oi'iginal rulers gave place

7 to them ^. Thus the one party inile and the others are ruled
in turn, as if they were no longer the same persons. In like
manner there is a variety in the offices held by them. Hence
it is evident that a city is not by nature one in that sense
which some persons affirm ; and that what is said to be the
greatest good of cities is in reality their destruction ; but
surely the good of things must be that which preserves them ^.

8 Again, in another point of view, this extreme unification
, of the state is clearly not good ; for a family is more self-
j sufficing than an individual, and a city than a family, and
I a city only comes into being when the community is large
\ enough to be self-sufficing. If then self-sufficiency is to be

desired, the lesser degree of unity is more desirable than the
greater.
8 But, even supposing that it were best for the community to

1 Cp.Pl. Rep. i. 345-6. ^ Cp. i. 12. § 2; iii. 17. § 4.

» Cp. PI, Rep. i. 352.

False Conception of %)nity S7

have the greatest degree of unity, this unity is by no means II. 3
indicated by the fact 'of all men saying "mine" and "not
mine" at the same instant of time,' which, according to
Socrates \ is the sign of perfect unity in a state. For the 2
word ' all ' is ambiguous. If the meaning be that every indi-
vidual says ' mine ' and ' not mine ' at the same time, then
perhaps the result at which Socrates aims may be in some
degree accomplished ; each man will call the same person his
own son and his own wife, and so of his property and of all
that belongs to him. This, however, is not the way in which
people would speak who had their wives and children in
common ; they would say ' all ' but not ' each.' In like man- 3
ner their property would be described as belonging to them,
not severally but collectively. There is an obvious fallacy in
the term 'all': like some other words, 'both,' 'odd,' 'even,'
it is ambiguous, and in argument becomes a source of logical
puzzles. That all persons call the same thing mine in the
sense in which each does so may be a fine thing, but it is
impracticable ; or if the words are taken in the other sense
[i. e. the sense which distinguishes ' all ' from ' each '], such
a unity in no way conduces to harmony. And there is 4
another objection to the proposal. For that which is common
to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it.
Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of they,
common interest ; and only when he is himself concerned as
an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is
more inclined to neglect the duty which he expects another to J
fulfil ; as in families many attendants are often less useful than
a few. Each citizen will have a thousand sons who will not 5
be his sons individually, but anybody will be equally the son
1 PI. Rep. V. 462 c.

J- 8 Plato's Republic:

II. 3 of anybody, and will therefore be neglected by all alike.
Further, upon this principle, every one will call another
' mine ' or ' not mine ' according as he is prosperous or the
reverse; — however small a fraction he may be of the whole
number, he will say of every individual of the thousand, or
whatever be the number of the city, ' such a one is mine,'
' such a one his ' ; and even about this he will not be posi-
tive ; for it is impossible to know who chanced to have a
child, or whether, if one came into existence, it has survived.

6 But which is better — to be able to say ' mine ' about every
one of the two thousand or the ten thousand citizens, or to
use the word ' mine ' in the ordinary and more restricted

7 sense ? For usually the same person is called by one man
his son whom another calls his brother or cousin or kinsman
or blood-relation or connexion by marriage either of himself
or of some relation of his, and these relationships he distin-
guishes from the tie which binds him to his tribe or ward ;

land how much better is it to be the real cousin of somebody

8 than to be a son after Plato's fashion ! Nor is there any
way of preventing brothers and children and fathers and
mothers from sometimes recognizing one another; for chil-
dren are born like their parents, and they will necessarily be

9 finding indications of their relationship to one another. Geo-
graphers declare such to be the fact ; they say that in Upper
Libya, where the women are common, nevertheless the chil-
dren who are born are assigned to their respective fathers on
the ground of their likeness ^. And some women, like the
females of other animals — for example mares and cows —
have a strong tendency to produce offspring resembling their

* Cp. Herod, iv. iSo.

Com muni ty of Women and Children fp

parents, as was the case with the Pharsalian mare called II. 3
Dicaea (the Just)^

Other evils, against which it is not easy for the authors of 4
such a community to guard, will be assaults and homicides,
voluntary as well as involuntary, quarrels and slanders, all
which are most unholy acts when committed against fathers
and mothers and near relations, but not equally unholy when
there is no relationship. Moreover, they are much more
likely to occur if the relationship is unknown, and, when they
have occurred,! the customary expiations of them cannot v
be made. Again, how strange it is that Socrates, after '
having made the children common, should hinder lovers
from carnal intercourse only, but should permit familiarities
between father and son or between brother and brother,
than which nothing can be more unseemly, since even
without them, love of this sort is improper. How strange, 3
too, to forbid intercourse for no other reason than the violence ,
of the pleasure, as though the relationship of father and son
or of brothers with one another made no difference.

This community of wives and children seems better 4
suited to the husbandmen than to the guardians, for if they
have wives and children in common, they will be bound 126-2 b
to one another by weaker ties, as a subject class should be,
and they will remain obedient and not rebeP. In a word, the, 5
result of such a law would be just the opposite of that which ^
good laws ought to have, and the intention of Socrates 1
in making these regulations about women and children would '
defeat itself. For friendship we believe to be the greatest good
of states ^ and the preservative of them against revolutions ;

^ Cp. Hist. Anim, vii. 6, p. 5S6 a. 13.
» Cp, vii. 10. § 13. ' Cp. N. Eth. viii. i. § 4.

i ^■ Li^i -• (i^(aI£Xiouo,^^i^'^' 'f^^^^ ^^'^^'^^^

II,

<^o Plato's l{epublic:

4 neither is there anything which Socrates so greatly lauds as
the unity of the state which he and all the world declare

^to be created by friendship. But the unity which he com-
mends ^ would be like that of the lovers in the Sympo-
sium^, who, as Aristophanes says, desire to grow together
in the excess of their affection, and from being two to

7 become one, in which case one or both would certainly
perish. Whereas [the very opposite will really happen ;] in
a state having women and children common, love will be
watery; and the father will certainly not say 'my son,' or

8 the son ' my father ■''.' As a little sweet wine mingled with
I a great deal of water is imperceptible in the mixture, so,
' in this sort of community, the idea of relationship which

■r is based upon these names will be lost ; there is no reason
why the so-called father should care about the son, or
the son about the father, or brothers about one another.

9 Of the two qualities which chiefly inspire regard and affection
; — that a thing is your own and that you love it — neither
1 can exist in such a state as this.

Again, the transfer of children as soon as they are born
from the rank of husbandmen or of artisans to that of
guardians, and from the rank of guardians into a lower rank ^,
will be very difficult to arrange ; the givers or transferrers
cannot but know whom they are giving and transferring, and
10 to whom. And the previously mentioned evils, such as
assaults, unlawful loves, homicides, will happen more often
amongst those who are transferred to the lower classes,
or who have a place assigned to them among the guardians ;
for they will no longer call the members of any other class

* Cp. c. 2. * Symp. 189-193. ^ Cp. c. 3.

* Rep. iii. 415.

Community of Property 61

brothers, and children, and fathers, and mothers, and will II. 4
not, therefore, be afraid of committing any crimes by reason
of consanguinity. Touching the community of wives and
children, let this be our conclusion.

Next let us consider what should be our arrangements 5 K^^f-

about property : should the citizens of the perfect state have
their possessions in common or not ? This question may 2
be discussed separately from the enactments about women
and children. Even supposing that the women and children 1268 a
belong to individuals, according to the custom which is at
present universal, may there not be an advantage in having and
using possessions in common ? Three cases are possible :
(l) the soil may be appropriated, but the produce may be| ii^Mi»r U' <
thrown for consumption into the common stock; and this is
the practice of some nations. Or (2), the soil may be
common, and may be culti\ated in common, but the produce
divided among individuals for their private use ; this is a form
of common property which is said to exist among certain
barbarians. Or (3), the soil and the produce may be alike
common.

When the husbandmen are not the citizens, the case will 3
be different and easier to deal with ; but when the citizens till
the ground themselves the question of ownership will give a
world of trouble. If they do not sliare equally in enjoyments
and toils, those who labour much and get little will necessarily
complain of those who labour little and receive or consume
much. The^e^is always a difficulty in men living together and 4
having things in common, but especially in their having
common property. The partnerships of fellow-travellers are
an example to the point ; for they generally fall out by
the way and quarrel about any trifle which turns up. So

6z Plato's J^epublic:

II. 5 with servants : we are most liable to take offence at those
i with whom we most frequently come into contact in daily

:iife.

6 These are only some of the disadvantages which attend
the community of property ; the present arrangement, if im-
proved as it might be by good customs and laws, would be
far better, and would have the advantages of both systems.

I Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a
'' 6 general rule, private ; for, when every one has a distinct

ti cU^t fiDtAno ^ interest ^, men will not complain of one another, and they
weiwV««^ C^M.^Wl make more progress, because every one will be attending
to his own business. And yet among the good, and in
respect of use, ' Friends,' as the proverb says, 'will have all
things common ^' Even now there are traces of such a
principle, showing that it is not impracticable, but, in well-
ordered states, exists already to a certain extent and may

7 be carried further. For, although every man has his own
property, some things he will place at the disposal of his
friends, while of others he shares the use with them. The
Lacedaemonians, for example, use one another's slaves, and
horses and dogs, as if they were their own ; and when they
happen to be in the country, they appropiiate in the fields

8 whatever provisions they want. It is clearly better that property
> should be private, but the use of it common ;_and the special

business of the legislator is to create in men this benevolent

'* i disposition. Again, how immeasurably greater is the pleasure,

^CWt't t j263 b when a man feels a thing to be his own ; for the love of self "

^fy**- */*-''* **^ is a feeling implanted by nature and not given in vain,

■i^efj jfi^nsoo-^ '^g' although selfishness is rightly censured ; this, however, is not

' Cp. Rep. ii. 374. ^ Cp. Rep. iv. 424 a.

' Cp. N. Eth. ix. 8. § 6.

Community of Property 6^

the mere love of self, but the love of self in excess, like II. 5
the miser's love of money ; for all, or almost all, men love
money, and other such objects in a measure. And further,
there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to
friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered
when a man has private property. The advantage is lost by 10
the excessive unification of the state. Two virtues are
annihilated in such a state : first, temperance towards women 0^

(for it is an honourable action to abstain from another's wife :
for temperance sake); secondly, liberality in the matter of ■4-

property. No one, when men have all things in common,
will any longer set an example of liberality or do any
liberal action ; for liberality consists in the use which is made >>
of property ^.

Such legislation may have a specious appearance of 11
benevolence ; men readily listen to it, and are easily induced
to believe that in some wonderful manner everybody will
become everybody's friend, especially when some one ^ is
heard denouncing the evils now existing in states, suits
about contracts, convictions for perjury, flatteries of rich men
and the like, which are said to arise out of the possession of
private property. These evils, however, are due to a very 12
different cause — the wickedness of human nature. Indeed,
we see that there is much more quarrelling among those |
who have all things in common, though there are not many
of them when compared with the vast numbers who have
private property.

Again, we ought to reckon, not only the evils from 13 -^
which the citizens will be saved, but also the advantages
which they will lose. The life which they are to lead appears
» Cp. N. Eth. iv. i.§ I. » Rep V. 464, 465.

<^4 Plato''s T{epublic:

II. 5 to be quite impracticable. The error of Socrates must be
attributed to the false notion of unity from which he starts.

14 Unity there should be, both of the family and of the state,
but in some respects only. For there is a point at which
a state may attain such a degree of unity as to be no longer a
state, or at which, without actually ceasing to exist, it will
become an inferior state, like harmony passing into unison,

15 or rhythm which has been reduced to a single foot. The
Istate^ as I was saying, is a plurality ^, which should be

■ junited and made into a community by education ; and it
is strange that the author of a system of education, which
he thinks will make the state virtuous, should expect to
improve his citizens by regulations of this sort, and not
by philosophy or by customs and laws, like those which
prevail at Sparta and Crete respecting common meals, where-
1264 a by the legislator has [to a certain degree] made property

16 common. Let us remember that we should not disregard the
experience of ages ; in the multitude of years these things, if
they were good, would certainly not have been unknown ; for
almost everything has been found out, although sometimes
they are not put together ; in other cases men do not use the

1 7 knowledge which they have. Great light would be thrown on
this subject if we could see such a form of government in the
actual process of construction ; for the legislator could not
form a state at all without distributing and dividing the citizens
into associations for common meals, and into phratries and
tribes. But all this legislation ends only in forbidding
agriculture to the guardians, a prohibition which the Lace-
daemonians try to enforce already.

A.. 18 Again, Socrates has not said, nor is it easy to decide,

^ Cp. c. 2. § 2.

Miscellaneous Criticisms 6y

what in such a community will be the general form of the II.
state. The citizens who are not guardians are the majority, \
and about them nothing has been determined : are the
husbandmen, too, to have their property in common ? Or,
besides the common land which he tills, is each individual
to have his own ? and are their wives and children to
be individual or common ? If, like the guardians, they are to 19
have all things in common, in what do they differ from them,
or what will they gain by submitting to their government ?
Or, upon what principle would they submit, unless indeed
the governing class adopt the ingenious policy of the Cretans,
who give their slaves the same institutions as their own,
but forbid them gymnastic exercises and the possession of
arms. If, on the other hand, the inferior classes are too 20
like other cities in respect of marriage and property, what will
be the form of the community? Must it not contain two
states in one ^, each liostile to the other ? ^ One class will
consist of the guardians, who are a sort of watchmen ;
another, of the husbandmen, and there will be the artisans and
the other citizens ^. But [if so] the suits and quarrels, and all 21
the evils which Socrates affirms ^ to exist in other states, will
exist equally among them. He says indeed that, having so
good an education, the citizens will not need many laws, for
example, laws about the city or about the markets * ; but then
he confines his education to the guardians. Again, he makes 23
the husbandmen owners of the land upon condition of their
paying a tribute •\ But in that case they are likely to be much

1 Cp. Rep. iv. 422 E.

' Or (with Bernays), ' He makes the guardians into a mere occupying
garrison, while the husbandmen and artisans and the rest are the real
citizens ; ' see note.

s Rep. V. 464, 465. • Rep. iv. 425 D. 5 ]^gp_ y ^q^ ^^

DAVIS F

66 Plato's I{epuhlic

II. 5 more unmanageable and conceited than the Helots, or
23 Penestae, or slaves in general \ And whether community
of wives and property be necessary for the lower equally
with the higher class or not, and the questions akin to this,
what will be the education, form of government, laws of
the lower class, Socrates has nowhere determined : neither
is it easy, though very Important, to discover what should
be the character of the Inferior classes, if the common life of
the guardians Is to be maintained.
^ 12G4 b Again, if Socrates makes the women common, and retains
^4|private property, the men will see to the fields, but who
will see to the house ? " And what will happen if the
agricultural class have both their property and their wives
in common ^ ? Once more ; it is absurd to argue, from
the analogy of the animals, that men and women should
follow the same pursuits ^ ; for animals have not to manage

25 a household. The government, too, as constituted by
Socrates, contains elements of danger ; for he makes the same
persons always rule. And if this Is often a cause of dis-
turbance among the meaner sort, how much more among high-

26 spirited warriors ? But that the persons whom he makes
rulers must be the same Is evident ; for the gold which the
God mingles In the souls of men is not at one time given to
one, at another time to another, but always to the same : as
he says, * God mingles gold in some, and silver in others,
from their very birth ; but brass and iron in those who are

27 meant to be artisans and husbandmen *.' Again, he deprives
' the guardians of happiness, and says that the legislator ought

to make the whole state happy*. But the whole cannot

' Cp. c. 9. § 2. ^ These words are bracketed by Bekker.

* Cp. Rtp. V. 451 D. * Cp. Rep. iii, 415 a. ^ Rep. iv. 419, 420.

Criticisms 67

be happy unless most, or all, or some of its parts enjoy II. 5
happiness ^ In this respect happiness is not like the even
principle in numbers, which may exist only in the whole,
but in none of the parts ; not so happiness. And if the 28
guardians are not happy, who are ? Surely not the artisans
or the common people. The Republic of which Socrates
discourses has all these difficulties, and others quite as
great.

The same, or nearly the same, objections apply to Plato's 6
later work, the Laws, and therefore we had better examine
briefly the constitution which is therein described. In the
Republic, Socrates has definitely settled in all a few questions
only; such as the community of women and children, the
community of property, and the constitution of the state.
The population is divided into two classes — one of husband- 2
men, and the other of warriors ; from this latter is taken
a third class of counsellors and rulers of the state. But 3
Socrates has not determined whether the husbandmen and
artisans are to have a share in the government, and whether
they, too, are to carry arms and share in military service,
or not. He certainly thinks that the women ought to share
in the education of the guardians, and to fight by their side.
The remainder of tJie work is filled up with digressions
foreign to the main subject, and with discussions about the
education of the guardians. In the Laws there is hardly l'-C5 a
anything but laws; not much is said about the constitution. '^
This, which he had intended to make more of the ordinary
type, he gradually brings round to the other or ideal form.
For with the exception of the community of women and 5
property, he supposes everything to be the same in both

1 Cp. vii. 9. § 7.
F 2

6^ Plato's Laws:

II. 6 states ; there is to be the same education ; the citizens of
both are to live free from servile occupations, and there are to
be common meals in both. The only difference is that in the
Laws, the common meals are extended to women ^, and
the warriors number about 5000^, but in the Republic only
1000^,
"»' 6 The discourses of Socrates are never commonplace ; they
always exhibit grace and originality and thought ; but perfec-
tion in everything can hardly be expected. We must not
overlook the fact that the number of 5000 citizens, just now
mentioned, will require a territory as large as Babylonia, or
some other huge country, if so many persons are to be sup-
ported in idleness, together with their women and attendants,
jt who will be a multitude many times as great. [In framing
(an ideal] we may assume what we wish, but should avoid
\ impossibilities *,
««*«!«' It is said [in the Laws] that the legislator ought to have
his eye directed to two points, — the people and the country ®.
But neighbouring countries also must not be forgotten by
him*, if the state for which he legislates is to have a true
political life ''. For a state must have such a military force
as will be serviceable against her neighbours, and not merely
8 useful at home. Even if the life of action is not admitted to
be the best, either for individuals or states ^, still a city should
be formidable to enemies, whether invading or retreating.

There is another point ; Should not the amount of pro-
perty be defined in some clearer way ? For Socrates says

^ Laws, vi. 781. " Laws, v. 737 E.

* Rep, iv. 423 A (but see note on this passage).

* Cp. vii. 4. § 2. ^ Perhaps Laws, 703-707 and 747 d (?).

* Cp. c. 7. § 14. ' Cp. vii. 6. § 7. ' Cp. vii. c. 2 and 3.

Criticisms <^9

that a man should have so much property as will enable him II. 6
to live temperately \ which Is only a way of saying ' to live
well ' ; this would be the higher or more general conception.
But a man may live temperately and yet miserably. A better 9
definition would be that a man must have so much property.,
as will enable him to live not only temperately but liberally ^ ; j
if the two are parted, liberality will combine with luxury ; toil
will be associated with temperance. For liberality and tem-
perance are the only virtues ' which have to do with the use
of property. A man cannot use property with mildness or
courage, but temperately and liberally he may ; and therefore
the practice of these virtues is inseparable from property.
There is an inconsistency, too, in equalizing the property and lo ,.,^
not regulating the number of the citizens * ; the population is
to remain unlimited, and he thinks that it will be sufficiently
equalized by a certain number of marriages being unfruitful,
however many are born to others, because he finds this to be 1265 b
the case in existing states. But [in Plato's imaginary state] 1 1
greater care will be required than now ; for among ourselves,
whatever may be the number of citizens, the property is always
distributed among them, and therefore no one is in want ; but,
if the property were incapable of division [as in the Laws],
the supernumeraries, whether few or many, would get nothing.
One would have thought that it was even more necessary to 12
limit population than property ; and that the limit should be
fixed by calculating the chances of mortality in the children,
and of sterility in married persons. The neglect of this sub- 1 3
ject, which in existing states is so common, is a never-failing

^ Laws, V. 737 D. ^ Cp. vii. 5. § i.

^ Omitling i^iis and reading dpirai with the MSS., or, reading with
Bekk. i^iis aipirai, ' eligible qualities.' * But see Laws, v. 740.

70 Plato's Laws:

II. 6 cause of poverty among the citizens ; and poverty is the parent
of revolution and crime. Pheidon the Corinthian, who was
one of the most ancient legislators, thought that the families
and the number of citizens ought to remain the same, although
originally all the lots may have been of different sizes ; but in

14 the Laws, the opposite principle is maintained. What in our
opinion is the right arrangement will have to be explained
hereafter ^ .

There is another omission in the Laws ; Socrates does not
tell us how the rulers differ from their subjects ; he only says
that they should be related as the warp and the woof, which

15 are made out of different wools ^. He allows that a man's
whole property may be increased fivefold ^, but why should not
his land also increase to a certain extent ? Again, will the
good management of a household be promoted by his arrange-
ment of homesteads ? for he assigns to each individual two

16 homesteads in separate places *, and it is difficult to live in two
houses.

The whole system of government tends to be neither demo-
cracy nor oligarchy, but something in a mean between them,
which is usually called a polity, and is composed of the heavy
armed soldiers. Now, if he intended to frame a constitution
which would suit the greatest number of states, he was very
likely right, but not if he meant to say that this constitutional
form came nearest to his first or ideal state ; for many would

1 7 prefer the Lacedaemonian, or, possibly, some other more aris-
tocratic government. Some, indeed, say that the best consti-

^ Cp. vii. 5. § I ; 10. § II ; 16. § 15 ; bat the promise is hardly
fulfilled.

* Laws, V. 734 E, 735 A. ^ Laws, v. 744 e.

* Laws, V. 745, but cp. infra, vii. to. § il.

The Form of Government 71

tution is a combination of all existing forms, and they praise the II.0
Lacedaemonian ^ because it is made up of oligarchy, monarchy,
democracy, the king forming the monarchy, and the council
of elders the oligarchy, while the democratic element is
represented by the Ephors ; for the Ephors are selected from
tlie people. Others, however, declare the Ephoralty to be
a tyranny, and find the element of democracy in the common
meals and in the habits of daily life. In the Law ^, it is "
maintained that the best state is made up of democracy and
tyranny, which are either not constitutions at all, or are the
worst of all. But they are nearer the truth who combine
many forms ; for the state is better which is made up of
more numerous elements. The constitution proposed in the
Laws has no element of monarchy at all ; it is nothing but
oligarchy and democracy, leaning rather to oligarchy. This 19
is seen in the mode of appointing magistrates ^ ; for although
the appointment of them by lot from among those who have
been already selected combines both elements, the way in
which the rich are compelled by law to attend the assembly*
and vote for magistrates or discharge other political duties,
while the rest may do as they like, and the endeavour to have
the greater number of the magistrates appointed out of the
richest classes and the highest officers selected from those
who have the greatest incomes, both these are oligarchical 20
features. The oligarchical principle prevails also in the
choice of the council ^ ; for all are compelled to choose, but
the compulsion extends only to the choice out of the first

1 Cp. iv. § 7; 7. § 4; 9. §§ 7-9. * vi. 756 e; cp. iv. 710,

3 Laws, vi. 755, 763 E, 765.

* Laws, vi. 764 a; and Pol. iv. 9. § 2 ; 14. § 12.

' Laws, vi. 756 B-E.

72 Plato's Laws:

II. 6 class, and of an equal number out of the second class and out
of the third class, but not in this latter case to all the voters
of the third and forth class ; and the selection of candidates
out of the fourth class ' is only compulsory on the first and

21 second. Then, he says that there ought to be an equal

number of each class selected. Thus a preponderance will

^ be given to the better sort of people, who have the larger

incomes, because many of the lower classes, not being cora-

32 pelled, will not vote. These considerations, and others which
will be adduced when the time comes for examining similar
polities, tend to show that states like Plato's should not be
composed of democracy and monarchy. There is also a
danger in electing the magistrates out of a body who are
themselves elected ; for, if but a small number choose to com-
bine, the elections will always go as they desire. Such is the
constitution which is described in the Laws.
7 Other constitutions have been proposed ; some by private
persons, others by philosophers and statesmen, which all
come nearer to established or existing ones than either of
Plato's. No one else has introduced such novelties as the
community of women and children, or public tables for women :

2 other legislators begin with what is necessary. In the
opinion of some, the regulation of property is the chief point

^ of all, that being the question upon which all revolutions turn.
This danger was recognized by Phaleas of Chalcedon, who
I was the first to affirm that the citizens of a state ought to have

3 equal possessions. He thought that in a new colony the
1266 b equalization might be accomplished without difficulty, not so

easily when a state was already established; and that then
the shortest way of compassing the desired end would be for
^ Omitting either rod TiTaprov or raiv nrdprojv.

Phaleas — Equality of Property 73

j the rich to give and not to leceive marriage portions, and for H, 7

1 the poor not to give but to receive them.

Plato in the Laws was of opinion that, to a certain extent, 4
accumulation should be allowed, forbidding, as I have already
observed \ any citizen to possess more than five times the
minimum qualification. But those who make such laws should 5
remember what they are apt to forget — that the legislator
who fixes the amount of property should also fix the number |
of children ; for, if the children are too many for the property,
the law must be broken. And, besides the violation of the
law, it is a bad thing that many from being rich should
become poor ; for men of ruined fortunes are sure to stir up
revolutions. That the equalization of property exercises an 6
influence on political society was clearly understood even by
some of the old legislators. Laws were made by Solon and
others prohibiting an individual from possessing as much land
as he pleased ; and there are other laws in states which forbid
the sale of property : among the Locrians, for example, there
is a law that a man is not to sell his property unless he can
prove unmistakably that some misfortune has befallen him. 7
Again, there have been laws which enjoin the preservation of
the original lots. Such a law existed in the island of Leucas,
and the abrogation of it madfe the constitution too democratic,
for the rulers no longer had the prescribed qualification.
Again, where there is equality of property, the amount may
be either too large or too small, and the possessor may be
living either in luxury or penury. Clearly, then, the legis-'^
lator ought not only to aim at the equalization of properties, g
but at moderation in their amount. And yet, if he prescribe^
this moderate amount equally to all, he will be no nearer the
' c. 6. § 15.

74 Phateasj

II. 7 mark ; for it is not the possessions but the desires of mankind
' which require to be equalized \ and this is impossible, unless
a sufficient education is provided by the state. But Phaleas
will probably reply that this is precisely what he means ; and
that, in his opinion, there ought to be in states, not only equal
9 property, but equal education. Still he should tell us what
will be the character of his education ; there is no use in
having one and the same for all, if it is of a sort that predis-

10 poses men to avarice, or ambition, or both. Moreover, civil
troubles arise, not only out of the inequality of property, but

* if" ' "* ' jout of the inequality of honour, though in opposite ways. For

1267 althe common people quarrel about the inequality of property, the

♦higher class about the equality of honour ; as the poet says —

' The bad and good alike in honour share '^.'

1 1 There are crimes of which the motive is want ; and for
these Phaleas expects to find a cure in the equalization of
property, which will take away from a man the temptation to

12 be a highwayman, because he is hungry or cold. But want
is not the sole incentive to crime ; men desire to gratify some
passion which preys upon them, or they are eager to enjoy the
pleasures which are unaccompanied with the pain of desire,
and therefore they commit crimes.

Now what is the cure of these three disorders ? Of the first,
I moderate possessions and occupation ; of the second, habits
of temperance ; as to the third, if any desire pleasures which
depend on themselves, they will find the satisfaction of their
f desires nowhere but in philosophy ; for all other pleasures
fg we are dependent on others. The fact is that the greatest
V' ,< crimes are caused by excess and not by necessity. Men do

1 Cp. c. 5. § 12 ^ II. ix. 319.

His Errors and Omissions yj

not become tyiants in order that they may not suffer cold ; II. 7
and hence great is the honour bestowed, not on him who kills
a thief, but on him who kills a tyrant. Thus we see that the
institutions of Phaleas avail only against petty crimes.

There is another objection to them. They are chiefly ^4
designed to promote the internal welfare of the state. But
the legislator should consider also its relation to neighbouring
nations, and to all who are outside of it \ The government
must be organized with a view to military strength ; and of
this he has said not a word. And so with respect to pro- 15
peity : there should not only be enough to supply the internal
wants of the state, but also to meet dangers coming from
without. The property of the state should not be so large
that more powerful neighbours may be tempted by it, while
the owners are unable to repel the invaders ; nor yet so small
that the state is unable to maintain a war even against states
of equal power, and of the same character. Phaleas has not 16
laid down any rule ; and we should bear in mind ^ that a cer-
tain amount of wealth ^ is an advantage. The best limit will
probably be, not so much as will tempt a moVe powerful neigh-
bour, or make it his interest to go to war with you. There 17
is a story that Eubulus, when Autophradates was going to
besiege Atarneus, told him to consider how long the opera-
tion would take, and then reckon up the cost which would
be incurred in the time. ' For,' said he, ' I am willing for
a smaller sum than that to leave Atarneus at once.' These
words of Eubulus made an impression on Autophradates, and
he desisted from the siege.

One advantage gained by the equalization of property is]
that it prevents the citizens from quarrelling. Not that the'

* Cp. c. 6. § 7. * Or reading o tl, ' what aaiouiit of wealth.'

r

76 Phaleas and Hippodamus

J:hey think their due; and this is often found to be a cause
„fof sedition and revokition ^ And the avarice of mankind

II. 7 g;iin in this direction is very great. For the nobles will be
dissatisfied because they do not receive the honours which

1267 bjf

is insatiable ; at one time two obols was pay enough, but
now, when this sum has become customary, men always
want more and more without end ; for it is of the nature
of desire not to be satisfied, and most men live only for
the gratification of it. ^ The beginning of reform ^ is not so

20 much to equalize property as to train the nobler sort of
natures not to desire more, and to prevent the lower from
getting more ; that is to say, they must be kept down, but not

21 illtreated. Besides, the equalization proposed by Phaleas is
/imperfect; for he only equalizes land, whereas a man may be
' rich also in slaves, and cattle, and money, and in the abun-
dance of what are called his movables. Now either all these
things must be equalized, or some limit must be imposed on

22 them, or they must all be let alone. It would appear that
Phaleas is legislating for a small city only, if, as he supposes,
all the artisans are to be public slaves and not to form a part

33 of the population of the city. But if there is a law that
artisans are to be public slaves, it should only apply to those
engaged on public works ', as at Epidamnus, or at Athens on
the plan which Diophantus once introduced.

From these observations any one may judge how far Phaleas
was wrong or right in his ideas.
8 Hippodamus, the son of Euryphon, a native of Miletus, the

1 Cp. § lo.

* Or, reading with Beniays d'/f?;, ' the remedy for such evils.'

3 Putting a comma after thai and removing the comma after

Hippodamus — His Constitution and Laws 77

same who invented the art of planning cities, and who also II. 8
laid out the Piraeus — a strange man, whose fondness for dis-
tinction led him into a general eccentricity of life, which
made some think him affected (for he would wear flowing hair
and expensive ornaments ; and yet he dressed himself in the
same cheap warm garment both in winter and summer) ; he,
besides aspiring to be an adept in the knowledge of nature,
was the first person not a statesman who made enquiries about
the best form of government.

The city of Hippodamus was composed of io,ooo citizens 2
divided into tliree parts — one of artisans, one of husbandmen,
and a third of armed defenders of the state. He also divided 3
the land into three parts, one sacred, one public, the third
private : the first was set apart to maintain the customary
worship of the gods, the second was to support the warriors,
the third was the property of the husbandmen. He also 4 ■
divided his laws into three classes, and no more, for he main-
tained that there are three subjects of lawsuits — Insult, |
injury, and homicide. He likewise instituted a single final >•
court of appeal, to which all causes seeming to have been
improperly decided might be referred ; this court he formed
of elders chosen for the purpose. He was further of opinion I'^f'? a
that the decisions of the courts ought not to be given by the 5
use of a voting pebble, but that every one should have a tablet
on which he might not only write a simple condemnation, or
leave the tablet blank for a simple acquittal ; but, if he partly
acquitted and partly condemned, he was to distinguish accord-
ingly. To the existing law he objected that it obliged the
judges to be guilty of perjury, whichever way they voted.
He also enacted that those who discovered anything for th&-6— Rf^fUfU 3^
good of the state should be rewarded ; and he provided that

7 8 Hippodamus — His Confusions

II. 8 the children of citizens who died in battle should be main-

jctained at the public expense, as if such an enactment had

never been heard of before, yet it actually exists at Athens ^

1 and in other places. As to the magistrates, he would have

)them all elected by the people, that is, by the three classes

'already mentioned, and those who were elected were to watch

over the interests of the public, of strangers and of orphans.

These are the most striking points in the constitution of

Hippodamus. There is not much else.

The first of these proposals to which objection may be

8 taken, is the threefold division of the citizens. The artisans,
and the husbandmen, and the warriors, all have a share in the
government. But the husbandmen have no arms, and the

' artisans neither arms nor land, and therefore they become all

9 but slaves of the warrior class. That they should share in
all the offices is an impossibility ; for generals and guardians
of the citizens, and nearly all the principal magistrates, must
be taken from the class of those who carry arms. Yet, if the
two other classes have no share in the government, how can
they be loyal citizens ? It may be said that those who have
arms must necessarily be masters of both the other classes,
but this is not so easily accomplished unless they are numer-
ic ous ; and if they are, wliy should the other classes share in the

government at all, or have power to appoint magistrates ?
Artisans there must be, for these are wanted in every city,
and they can live by their craft, as elsewhere ; and the hus-
bandmen, too, if they really provided the warriors with food,
might fairly have a share in the government. But in the
republic of Hippodamus they are supposed to have land of
their own, which they cultivate for their private benefit.
^ Cp. Thuc. ii. c. 46.

Courts of haw: Inventions 79

Again, as to this common land out of which the soldiers are II. 8
maintained, if they are themselves to be the cultivators of it, n
the warrior class will be identical with the husbandmen,
although the legislator intended to make a distinction between
them. If, again, there aie to be other cultivators distinct
both from the husbandmen, who have land of their own, and
from the warriors, they will make a fourth class, which has
no place in the state and no share in anything. Or, if the k
same persons are to cultivate their own lands and those of the
public as well, they will have a difficulty in supplying the
quantity of produce which will maintain two households : and 1268 b
why, in this case, should there be any division, for they
might find food themselves and give to the warriors from the
same lots ? There is surely a great confusion in all this.

Neither is the law to be commended which says that the 13
judges, when a simple issue is laid before them, should dis-
tinguish in their judgment ; for the judge is thus converted
into an arbitrator. Now, in an arbitration, although the
arbitrators are many, they confer with one another about the
decision, and therefore they can distinguish ; but in courts of
lav\^ this is impossible, and, indeed, most legislators take pains
to prevent the judges from holding any communication with
one another. Again, will there not be confusion if the judge 14
thinks that damages should be given, but not so much as the
suitor demands ? He asks, say, for twenty minae, and the
judge allows him ten minae, or one judge more and another
less ; one five, another four minae. In this way they will go
on apportioning the damages, and some will grant the whole
and others nothing: how is the final reckoning to be taken ? 15
Again, no one who votes for a simple acquittal or condemna-
tion is compelled to perjure himself, if the indictment is quite

tAtf^

^[t

80 Should Laws be Changed.

II. 8 simple and in right form ; for the judge who acquits does not
decide that the defendant owes nothing, but that he does not
owe the twenty minae. He only is guilty of perjury who
thinks that the defendant ought not to pay twenty minae, and
yet condemns him.

16 To reward those who discover anything which is useful to
\the state is a proposal which has a specious sound, but cannot

safely be enacted by law, for it may encourage informers, and
perhaps even lead to political commotions. This question
involves another. It has been doubted whether it is or is not
expedient to make any changes in the laws of a country, even

17 if another law be better. Now, if all changes are inexpedient,
we can hardly assent to the proposal of Hippodamus ; for,
under pretence of doing a public service, a man may introduce
measures which are really destructive to the laws or to the
constitution. But, since we have touched upon this subject,

18 perhaps we had better go a little into detail, for, as I was
saying, there is a difference of opinion, and it may sometimes
seem desirable to make changes. Such changes in the other
arts and sciences have certainly been beneficial ; medicine, for
example, and gymnastic, and every other art and science have
departed from traditional usage. And, if politics be an art,

19 change must be necessary in this as in any other art. The
need of improvement is shown by the fact that old customs
are exceedingly simple and barbarous. For the ancient
Hellenes went about armed ^ and bought their wives of each

20 other. The remains of ancient laws which have come down
1269 a to us are quite absurd ; for example, at Cumae there is a law

about murder, to the effect that if the accuser produce a certain
number of witnesses from among liis own kinsmen, the accused
' Cp. Thucyd, i. c. 5 and 6.

should Laws be Changed ^ 8 1

shall be held guilty. Again, men in general desire the good, II. 8
and not merely what their fathers had. But the primaeval 21
inhabitants \ whether they were born of the earth, or were
the survivors of some destruction, may be supposed to have
been no better than ordinary foolish people among ourselves ^
(such is certainly the tradition^ concerning the earth-born
men) ; and it would be ridiculous to rest contented with their
notions. Even when laws have been written down, they
ought not always to remain unaltered. As in other arts, so inj2 2
making a constitution, it is impossible that all things should bel
precisely set down in writing; for enactments must be uni-|
versal, but actions are concerned with particulars '. Hence \v^
infer that sometimes and in certain cases laws may be changed ;
but when we look at the matter from another point of view,
great caution would seem to be required. For the habit of 23
lightly changing the laws is an evil, and, when the advantage
is small, some errors both of lawgivers and rulers had better
be left ; the citizen will not gain so much by the change as he 1
will lose by the habit of disobedience. The analogy of the I24
arts is false ; a change in a law is a very different thing from
a change in an art. For the law has no power to command
obedience except that of habit, which can only be given by
time, so that a readiness to change from old to new laws
enfeebles the power of the law. Even if we admit that the 25
laws are to be changed, are they all to be changed, and in
every state ? And are they to be changed by anybody who

^ Or, referring o/xoi'oi;? to "^rf^ivth, ' whether they were born of the
earth cr were the survivors of some destruction, who were no better
{yiJLoiovs) than eirth-born men, may be supposed to have been ordinary
foolish people.'

^ Cp. Pkto, Laws, iii. 677 a; Polit. 271 A; Tim. 22 c.

3 Cp. Plaio, Pulit. 295 A.

DAVIS G

8 2 Sparta: the Helots;

II. 8 likes, or only by certain persons ? These ai'e very important
questions ; and therefore we had better reserve the discussion
of them to a more suitable occasion.
9 In the governments of Lacedaemon and Crete, and indeed
in all governments, two points have to be considered ; first,
whether any particular law is good or bad, when compared
with the perfect state ; secondly, whether it is or is not con-
sistent with the idea and character which the lawgiver has set

2 before his citizens ^. That in a well-ordered state the citizens
should have leisure and not have to provide for their daily
wants is generally acknowledged, but there is a difficulty in
seeing how this leisure is to be attained. [For, if you employ

• slaves, they are liable to rebel.] The Thessalian Penestae
have often risen against their masters, and the Helots in like
manner against the Lacedaemonians, for whose misfortunes

3 they are always lying in wait. Nothing, however, of this
1269 b ]iJnd has as yet happened to the Cretans ; the reason probably

is that the neighbouring cities, even when at war with one
I another, never form an alliance with rebellious serfs, rebellions
not being for their interest, since they themselves have a de-
pendent population ". Whereas all the neighbours of the
Lacedaemonians, whether Argives, Messenians, or Arcadians,
are their enemies [and the Helots are always revolting to
them]. In Thessaly, again, the original revolt of the slaves
occurred at a time when the Thessalians were still at war with
the neighbouring Achaeans, Perrhaebians, and Magnesians.

4 Besides, if there were no other difficulty, the treatment or
management of slaves is a troublesome affair ; for, if not kept
in hand, they are insolent, and think that they are as good as
their masters, and, if harshly treated, they hate and conspire

1 Or 'himself (Bernajs). ^ Cp. c. lo. § 5.

Licence of the Women 8 3

against them. Now it is clear that when these are the re- II.
suits the citizens of a state have not found out the secret of
managing their subject population.

Again, the licence of the Lacedaemonian women defeats 5
the intention of the Spartan constitution, and is adverse to the
good order of the state. For a husband and a wife, being
each a part of every family, the state may be considered as
about equally divided into men and women ; and, therefore, in
those states in which the condition of the women is bad, half!
the city^ may be regarded as having no laws. And this isle
what has actually happened at Sparta ; the legislator wanted to
make the whole state hardy and temperate, and he has carried
out his intention in the case of the men, but he has neglected
the women, who live in every sort of intemperance and luxury. ->t
The consequence is that in such a state wealth is too highly 7
valued, especially if the citizens fall under the dominion of
their wives, after the manner of all warlike races, except the .
Celts and a few others who openly approve of male loves. \
The old mythologer would seem to have been right in uniting 8
Ares and Aphrodite, for all warlike races are prone to the
love either of men or of women. This was exemplified among
the Spartans in the days of their greatness ; many things were
managed by their women. But what difference does it make 9
whether women rule, or the rulers are ruled by women ? The
result is the same. Even in regard to courage, which is of no
use in daily life, and is needed only in war, the influence of
the Lacedaemonian women has been most mischievous. The 10
evil showed itself in the Theban invasion, when, unlike the
women in other cities, they were utterly useless and caused
more confusion than the enemy. This licence of the Lacedae-
1 Cp. i. 13. § 16.

G 2

84 Sparta: Inequality of Property ^

II. 9 monian women existed fiom the earliest times, and was only
1270 a what might be expected. For, during the wars of the Lace-
daemonians, first against the Argives, and afterwards against
the Arcadians and Messenians, the men were long away from
home, and, on the return of peace, they gave themselves into
the legislator's hand, already prepared by the discipline of
■ a soldier's life (in wliich there are many elements of virtue\
to receive his enactments. But, when Lycurgus, as tradition
says, wanted to bi-ing the women under his laws, they resisted,

12 and he gave up the attempt. They, and not he, are to blame
for what then happened, and this defect in the constitution is
clearly to be attributed to them. We are not, however, con-
sidering what is or is not to be excused, but what is right or

13 wrong ; and the disorder of the women, as I have already said,
not only of itself gives an air of indecorum to the state, but
tends in a measure to foster avarice.

The mention of avarice naturally suggests a criticism on the

14 inequality of property. While some of the Spartan citizens
» have quite small properties, others have very large ones ; hence
i the land has passed into the hands of a few. And here is

another fault in their laws ; for, although the legislator rightly
holds up to shame the sale or purchase of an inheritance, he

T% allows anybody who likes to give and bequeath it. Yet both
practices lead to the same result. And nearly two-fifths of
the whole country are held by women ; this is owing to the
number of heiresses and to the large dowries which are cus-
tomary. It would surely have been better to have given no
dowries at all, or, if any, but small or moderate ones. As the
law now stands, a man may bestow his heiress on any one
Iwhom he pleases, and, if he die intestate, the jirivilege of

i6|giving her away descends to his heir. Hence, although the

Criticism of the Ephoralty Sy

country is able to maintain 1500 cavalry and 30,000 hoplites, II. 9
the whole number of Spartan citizens [at the time of the
Theban invasion] fell below 1000. The result proves the
faulty nature of their laws respecting property ; for the city
sank under a single defeat ; the want of men was their ruin.
There is a tradition that, in the days of their ancient kings, 17
they were in the habit of giving the rights of citizenship to
strangers, and theiefore, in spite of their long wars, no lack of
population was experienced by them ; indeed, at one time
Sparta is said to have numbered not less than 10,000 citizens.
Whether this statement is true or not, it would certainly have
been better to have maintained their numbers by the equalizaf
tion of property. Again, the law which relates to the pro- 18
creation of children is adverse to the correction of this
inequality. For the legislator, wanting to have as many 1270 b
Spartans as he could, encouraged the citizens to have large
families ; and there is a law at Sparta that the father of three
sons shall be exempt from military service, and he who has- ,
four from all the burdens of the state. Yet it is obvious that, i^
if there were many children, the land being distributed as it is,
many of them must necessarily fall into poverty.

The Lacedaemonian constitution is defective in another /•

point ; I mean the Ephoralty. This magistracy has authority
in the highest matters, but the Ephors are all chosen from the
people, and so the office is apt to fall into the hands of very i
poor men, who, being badly off, are open to bribes. There ^o
have been many examples at Sparta of this evil in former ^frlv

times; and quite recently, in the matter of the Andrians,
certain of the Ephors who were bribed did their best to ruin
the state. And so great and tyrannical is their power, that
even the kings have been compelled to court them ; through

\n

8 6 Sparta : Criticism of the Coiuuil of Elders ;

II. 9 their influence the constitution has deteriorated, and from

21 being an aristocracy has turned into a democracy. The
vEphoralty certainly does keep the state together; for the

people are contented when they have a share in the highest
office, and the result, whether due to the legislator or to

22 chance, has been advantageous. For if a constitution is to be
permanent, all the parts of the state must wish that it should
exist and be maintained^. This is the case at Sparta, where
the kings desire permanence because they have due honour in
their own persons ; the nobles are represented in the council
of elders (for the office of elder is a reward of virtue) ; and

23 the people in the Ephoralty, for all are eligible to it. The
I election of Ephors out of the whole people is perfectly right,

but ought not to be carried on in the present fashion, which is
too childish. Again, they have the decision of great causes,
although they are quite ordinary men, and therefore they should
not determine them merely on their own judgment, but accord-

24 ing to written rules, and to the laws. Their way of life, too,
is not in accordance with the spirit of the constitution — they
have a deal too much licence ; whereas, in the case of the
other citizens, the excess of strictness is so intolerable that
they run away from the law into the secret indulgence of
sensual pleasures.

25 Again, the council of elders is not free from defects. It
may be said that the elders are good men and well trained in
manly virtue ; and that, therefore, there is an advantage to the
state in having them. But that judges of important causes

X should hold office for life is not a good thing, for the mind
1271 a grows old as well as the body. And when men have been
educated in such a manner that even the legislator himself
1 Cp. iv. 9. § 10; V. 9. § 5,

Further Criticisms 87

cannot trust them, there is real danger. Many of the elders II. 9
are well known to have taken bribes and to have been guilty of ^6
partiality in public affairs. And therefore they ought not to
be irresponsible ; yet at Sparta they are so. But (it may be
replied), ' All magistracies are accountable to the Ephors.' ^
Yes, but this prerogative is too great for them, and we main-
tain that the control should be exercised in some other manner.
Further, the mode in which the Spartans elect their elders is 27
childish ; and it is improper that ^ the person to be elected I
should canvass for the office ; the worthiest should be ap-
pointed, whether he chooses or not. And here the legislator 28
clearly indicates the same intention which appears in other
parts of his constitution ; he would have his citizens ambitious,
and he has reckoned upon this quality in the election of the
elders ; for no one would ask to be elected if he were not.
Yet ambition and avarice, almost more than any other passions, \
are the motives of crime.

Whether kings are or are not an advantage to states, I will 29
consider at another time "^ ; they should at any rate be chosen,
not as they are now, but with regard to their personal life and |
conduct. The legislator himself obviously did not suppose 3°
that he could make them really good men ; at least he shows
a great distrust of their virtue. For this reason the Spartans
used to join enemies in the same embassy, and the quarrels
between the kings were held to be conservative of the state.

Neither did the first introducer of the common meals, called nr,

'phiditia,' regulate them well. The entertainment ought to 31
have been provided at the public cost, as in Crete ^; but

^ Reading to avrov, not tw, as Bekker, 2nd edit., apparen'.ly Dy
a misprint.

« Cp. iii. 14 foil. ' Cp. c. 10. §§ 7, S.

$.

8 8 Sparta: Further Criticisms

II. 9 among the Lacedaemonians every one is expected to contri-
l bute, and some of them are too poor to afford the expense ;

32 thus the intention of the legislator is frustrated. The common
meals were meant to be a popular institution, but the existing
manner of regulating them is the reverse of popular. For the
very poor can scarcely take part in them ; and, according to
ancient custom, those who cannot contribute are not allowed
to retain their rights of citizenship.

33 The law about the Spaitan admirals has often been censured,
and with justice ; it is a source of dissension, for tlie kings are
perpetual generals ^, and this office of admiral is but the setting
up of another king.

1271 b The charge which Plato brings, in the Laws ^, against the
^'^ in_tention of the legislator, is likewise justified; the whole con-
stitution has regard to one part of virtue only — the virtue of
the soldier, which gives victory in war. And so long as they
were at war, their power was preserved, but when they had
attained empire they fell ', for of the arts of peace they knew
nothing, and had never engaged in any employment higher
35 than war. There is another error, equally great, into which
they have fallen. Although they truly think that the goods
for which they contend are to be acquired by virtue rather than
by vice, they err in supposing that these goods are to be pre-
ferred to the virtue which gains them.

.-. 3^ Once more : J;he revenues of the state are ill-managed ;

' * there is no money in the treasuiy, although they are obliged

to carry on great wars, and they are unwilling to pay taxes.
The greater part of the land being in the hands of tlie Spar-
tans, they do not look closely into one another's contributions.

* Reading aibioi';. ^ Laws, i. C30.

* Cp. vii. 14. § 2 2.

Sparta and Crete 89

The result which the legislator has produced is the reverse of II. 9
beneficial ; for he has made his city poor, and his citizens 37
greedy.

Enough respecting the Spartan constitution, of which these
are the principal defects.

jrhe_xaas,Utytion5..Qf „the^^Clgi^ cities nearly resemble the 10
Spartan, and in some few points are quite as good ; but for the
most part less perfect in form. The older constitutions are
generally less elaborate than the later, and the Lacedaemonian
is said to be, and probably is, in a very great measure, a copy 2
of those in Crete. According to tradition, Lycurgus, when
he ceased to be the guardian of King Charilaus, went abroad
and spent a long time in Crete. For the two countries are
nearly connected ; the Lyctians are a colony of the Lacedae-
monians, and the colonists, when they came to Crete, adopted
the constitution which they found existing among the inhabi- 3
tants. Even to this day the Perioeci, or subject population of
Crete, are governed by the original laws which Minos enacted.
The island seems to be intended by nature for dominion in
Hellas, and to be well situated ; it extends right across the
sea, around which nearly all the Hellenes are settled ; and
while one end is not far from the Peloponnese, the other
almost reaches to the region of Asia about Triopium and 4
Rhodes. Hence Minos acquired the empire of the sea, sub-
duing some of the islands and colonizing others ; at last he
invaded Sicily, where he died near Camicus. 5

The Cretan institutions resemble the Lacedaemonian. The / ,

Helots are the husbandmen of the one, the Perioeci of the 1272 a
other, and both Cretans and Lacedaemonians have common
meals, which were anciently called by the Lacedaemonians not
* phiditia ' but ' andria ' ; and the Cretans have the same word,

90 Crete and Sparta

II. 10 the use of which proves that tlie common meals [or syssitia]

6 originally came from Crete. Further, the two constitutions

are similar [in many particulars] ; for the office of the Ephors

is the same as that of the Cretan Cosmi, the only difference

being that whereas the Ephors are five, the Cosmi are ten in

number. The elders, too, answer to the elders in Crete, who

are termed by the Cretans the council. And the kingly office

once existed in Crete, but was abolished, and the Cosmi have

^ now the duty of leading them in war. All classes share in

the ecclesia, but it can only ratify the decrees of the elders

and the Cosmi.

Ji 2- V The common meals of Crete are certainly better managed

than the Lacedaemonian ; for in Lacedaemon every one pays

so much per head, or, if he fails, the law, as I have already

explained, forbids him to exercise the rights of citizenship.

8 But in Crete they are of a more popular character. There, of
all the fruits of the earth, of cattle, of the public revenues, and
of the tribute which is paid by the Perioeci, one portion is

Assigned to the gods and to the service of the state, and
'another to the common meals, so that men, women, and

9 children are all supported out of a common stock ^. The
legislator has many ingenious ways of securing moderation in
eating which he conceives to be a gain ; he likewise encourages
the separation of men from women, lest they should have too
many children, and the companionship of men with one another

I — whether this is a good or bad thing I shall have an oppor-

tunity of considering at another time ''■. But that the Cretan
common meals are better ordered than the Lacedaemonian
there can be no doubt.

On the other hand, the Cosmi are even a worse institution
\ ■^ < 1 Cp. vii. 10. § 10. 2 vii. i6 (?).

Cretan Cosmi and Elders 9 i

than the Ephors, of which they have all the evils without the II. 10
good. Like the Ephors, they are any chance persons, but in ^°
Crete this is not counterbalanced by a corresponding political
advantage. At Sparta every one Is eligible, and the body of
the people, having a share in the highest office, want the state
to be permanent ^. But in Crete the Cosmi are elected out of
certain families, and not out of the whole people, and the
elders out of those who have been Cosmi.

The same criticism may be made about the Cretan, which 1 1
has been already made about the Lacedaemonian elders.
Their irresponsibility and life tenure is too great a privilege,
and their arbitrary power of acting upon their own judgment,
and dispensing with written law, is dangerous. It is no proof 12
of the goodness of the institution that the people are not
discontented at being excluded from it. For there is no
profit to be made out of the office ; and, unlike the Ephors, 1272 b
the Cosmi, being In an Island, are removed from temptation.

The remedy by which they correct the evil of this institu- 13
tion is an extraordinary one, suited rather to a close oligarchy
than to a constitutional state. For the Cosmi are often ex-
pelled by a conspiracy of their own colleagues, or of private
irdivlduals ; and they are allowed also to resign before their
term of office has expired. Surely all matters of this kind
are better regulated by law than by the will of man, which Is
a very unsafe rule. Worst of all Is the suspension of the.14
office of Cosmi, a device to which the nobles often have!
recourse when they will not submit to justice. This shows
that the Cretan government, although possessing some of the
characteristics of a constitutional state, is really a close
oligarchy.

^ Cp. supra, c. 9. § 21.

9 2 Carthage: Merits and

II. 10 The Cretans have a habit, too, of setting up a chief; they
get together a party among the common people and gather
their friends and then quarrel and fight with one another.

15 What is this but the temporary destruction of the state and
dissokition of society ? A city is in a dangerous condition
when those who are willing are also able to attack her. But,
as I have already said, the island of Crete is saved by her
situation ; distance has the same effect as the Lacedaemonian

16 prohibition of strangers ; and the Cretans have no foreign
dominions. This is the reason why the Perioeci are contented
in Crete, whereas the Helots are perpetually revolting. But
when lately foreign invaders found their way into the island,
the weakness of the Cretan constitution was revealed. Enough
of the government of Crete.

11 The Cartliaainians are also considered to liave an excellent
form of government, which differs from that of any other
state in several respects, though it is in some very like the
Lacedaemonian. Indeed, all three states — the Lacedaemonian,
the Cretan, and the Carthaginian — nearly resemble one another,
and are very different from any others. Many of the Cartha-

2 ginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their
constitution is proved by the fact that, although containing an
element of democracy, it has been lasting ; the Carthaginians
have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have
never been under the rule of a tyrant.

3 Among the points in which the Carthaginian constitution
resembles the Lacedaemonian are the following:— The com-
mon tables of the clubs answer to the Spartan phiditia, and
their magistracy of the 104 to the Ephors ; but, whereas the
Ephors are any chance persons, the magistrates of the Cartha-
ginians are elected according to merit — this is an improvement.

Defects of the Constitution 93

They have also their kings and their gerusia, or council of II. 11
elders, who correspond to the kings and elders of Sparta.
Their kings, unlike the Spartan, are not always of the samej4
family, and this an ordinary one, but if there is some dis-1
tinguished family they are selected out of it and not appointed '
by seniority— this is far better. Such officers have great
power, and therefore, if they are persons of little worth, do
a great deal of harm, and they have already done harm at 1273 a
Lacedaemon.

Most of the defects or deviations from the perfect state, for 5
which the Carthaginian constitution would be censured, apply t. r, ^^

equally to all the forms of government which we have men- ^ 5(vf"

tioned. But of the deflections from aristocracy and constitu.
tional government, some incline more to democracy and some to
oligarchy. The kings and elders, if unanimous, may determine
whether they will or will not bring a matter before the people,
but when they are not unanimous, the people may decide
whether or not the matter shall be brought forward. And 6
whatever the kings and elders bring before the people is not 1
only heard but also determined by them, and any one who likes !
may oppose it ; now this is not permitted in Sparta and Crete.
That the magistracies of five who have under them many 7
important matters should be co-opted, that they should choose
the supreme council of 100, and should hold office longer than
other magistrates (for they are virtually rulers both before and
after they hold office) — these are oligarchical features ; their
being without salary and not elected by lot, and any similar
points, such as the practice of having all suits tried by the
magistrates-^, and not some by one class of judges or jurors
and some by another, as at Lacedaemon, are characteristic of
' Cp. iii. I. §§ 10, II ; and see note at end.

94 Carthage a Plutocracy :

II. 11 aristocracy. The Carthaginian constitution deviates from
° aristocracy and inclines to oligarchy, chiefly on a point where
popular opinion is on their side. For men in general think
that magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit, but
for their wealth : a man, they say, who is poor cannot rule well
9 — he has not the leisure. If, then, election of magistrates for
their wealth be characteristic of oligarchy, and election for
merit of aristocracy, there will be a third form under which the
constitution of Carthage is comprehended ; for the Cartha-
ginians choose their magistrates, and particularly the highest
of them — their kings and generals — with an eye both to merit
■and to wealth.

lo" But we must acknowledge that, in thus deviating from
aristocracy, the legislator has committed an error. Nothing is
more absolutely necessary than to provide that the highest class,
not only when in office, but when out of office, should have leisure
and not demean themselves in any way ; and to this his atten-
tion should be first directed. Even if you must have regard to
wealth, in order to secure leisure, yet it is surely a bad thing
I that the greatest offices, such as those of kings and generals,

if should be bought. The law which allows this abuse makes

wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state

becomes avaricious. For, whenever the chiefs of the state

deem anything honourable, the other citizens are sure to follow

1273 b their example ; and, where virtue has not the first place, there

12 aristocracy cannot be firmly established. Those who have
been at the expense of purchasing their places will be in the
^ habit of repaying themselves ; and it is absurd to suppose that
a poor and honest man will be wanting to make gains, and that
a lower stamp of man who has incurred a great expense will
not. Wherefore they should rule who are able to "ule best

Preserved by Accident 95"

\api<jTapx'^'^A^- And even if the legislator does not care to II. 11
protect the good from poverty, he should at any rate secure
leisure for those in office ^.

It would seem also to be a bad principle that the same 4 3
person should hold many offices, which is a favourite practice |
among the Carthaginians, for one business is better done by
one man ^. The legislator should see to this and should not
appoint the same person to be a flute-player and a shoemaker.
Hence, where the state is large, it is more in accordance both 14
with constitutional and with democratic principles that the
offices of state should be distributed among many persons. >
For, as I was saying, this arrangement is more popular, and
any action familiarized by repetition is better and sooner per-
formed. We have a proof in military and naval matters ; the
duties of command and of obedience in both these services
extend to all.

The government of the Carthaginians is oligarchical, but 15
they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by their wealth,
which enables them from time to time to send out some
portion of the people' to their colonies. This is their
panacea and the means by which they give stability to the
state. Accident favours them, but the legislator should be .
able to provide against revolution without trusting to accidents.
As things are, if any misfortune occurred, and the people 16
revolted from their rulers, there would be no way of restoring
peace by legal methods.

1 Cp. c. 9. § 2. * Cp. Plato, Rep. ii. 374 a.

* Or, removing the comma after itXovTuv, and adding one after fjiepos,
' by enriching one portion of the people after another whom they send to
their colonies.' Cp. vi. 5. § 9, which tends to confirm this way of
taking the words.

^6 Solo?} and the Athenian Constitution

II. 11 Such is the character of the Lacedaemonian, Cretan, and
Carthaginian constitutions, which are justly celebrated.
12 Of those who have treated of governments, some have
never taken any part at all in public affairs, but have passed
their lives in a private station ; about most of them, what was
worth telling has been already told. Others have been law-
givers, either in their own or in foreign cities, whose affairs
they have administered ; and of these some have only made
laws, others have framed constitutions ; for example, Lycurgus

2 and Solon did both. Of the Lacedaemonian constitution
I have already spoken. As to Solon, he is thought by some
to have been a good legislator, who put an end to the ex-
clusiveness of the oligarchy, emancipated the people, established
the ancient Athenian democracy, and harmonized the different
elements of the state. According to their view, the council
of Areopagus was an oligarchical element, the elected magis-
1274 a tracy, aristocratical, and the courts of law, democratical. The
truth seems to be that the council and the elected magistracy

5- existed before the time of Solon, and were retained by him,
but that he formed the courts of law out of all the citizens,

,_thus creating the democracy, which is the very reason why he
is sometimes blamed. For in giving the supreme power to the
law courts, which are elected by lot, he is thought to have

4 destroyed the non-democratic element. When the law courts
grew powerful, to please the people, who were now playing
the tyrant, the old constitution was changed into the existing
democracy. _E£hialtes and^Pencks curtailed the power of the

X Areopagus ; they also instituted the payment of the juries, and
thus eveiy demagogue in turn increased the power of the

6 democracy until it became what we now see. All this is true;
it seems however to be the result of circumstances, and not to

Famous Lawgivers 97

have been intended by Solon. For the people having been II. 12
instrumental in gaining the empire of the sea in the Persian
War ^, began to get a notion of itself, and followed worthless
demagogues, whom the better class opposed. Solon himself
appears to have given the Athenians only that power of electing
to offices and calling to account the magistrates, which was
absolutely necessary^; for without it they would have been
in a state of slavery and enmity to the government. All the 6
magistrates he appointed from the notables and the men of
wealth, that is to say, from the pentacosio-medimni, or from
the class called zeugitae (because they kept a yoke of oxen), or
from a third class of so-called knights or cavalry. The fourth
class were labourers who had no share in any magistracy.

Mere legislators were Zaleucus, who gave laws to the Epi-
zephyrian, Locrians, and Charondas, who legislated for his
own city of Catana, and for the other Chalcidian cities in
Italy and Sicily. Some persons attempt ^ to make out that 7
Onomacritus was the first person who had any special skill in
legislation*, and that he, although a Locrian by birth, was
trained in Crete, where he lived in the exercise of his prophetic
art ; that Thales was his companion, and that Lycurgus and
Zaleucus were disciples of Thales, as Charondas was of
Zaleucus. But their account is quite inconsistent with 8
chronology.

There was also a Theban legislator, whose name was
Philolaus, the Corinthian. This Philolaus was one of the
family of the Bacchiadae, and a lover of Diodes, the Olympic
victor, who left Corinth in horror of the incestuous passion

* Cp. V. 4. § 8; viii. 6. § 11. ^ Cp. iii. il. § 8.

' Or (with Bernays), ' to make out an unbroken series of great legis-
lators, Onomacritus being considered the first.'

DAVIS H

o8 Famous Lawgivers

II. 12 which his mother Halcyone had conceived for him, and retired

to Thebes, where the two friends together ended their days.

9 The inhabitants still point out their tombs, which are in full

view of one another, but one looks towards Corinth, the other

not. Tradition says that the two friends arranged them in

this way. Diodes out of horror at his misfortunes, so that the

land of Corinth might not be visible from his tomb ; Philolaus

1274 b that it might. This is the reason why they settled at Thebes,

^° and so Philolaus legislated for the Thebans, and, besides some

other enactments, gave them laws about the procreation of

children, which they call the ' Laws of Adoption.' These

laws were peculiar to him, and were intended to preserve the

number of the lots.

11 In the legislation of Charondas there is nothing remarkable,
except the laws about false witnesses. He is the first who
instituted actions for perjury. His laws are more exact and
more precisely expressed than even those of our modern
legislators.

12 Characteristic of Phaleas is the equalization of property; of
Plato, the community of women, children, and property, the
common meals of women, and the law about drinking, that
the sober shall be masters of the feast ^ ; also the training of
soldiers to acquire by practice equal skill with both hands, so
that one should be as useful as the other ''■.

13 Draco has left laws, but he adapted them to a constitution
which already existed, and there is no peculiarity in them
which is worth mentioning, except the greatness and severity
of the punishments.

Pittacus, too, was only a lawgiver, and not the author of
a constitution ; he has a law which is peculiar to him, that, if
* Cp. Laws, ii. 671 D-672 a. * Cp. Laws, vii. 794 D.

Famous Lawgivers 99

a drunken man strike another, he shall be more heavily II, 12
punished than if he were sober ^ ; he looked not to the excuse ^
which might be offered for the drunkard, but only to expedi-
ency, for drunken more often than sober people commit acts
of violence.

Androdamas of Rhegium gave laws to the Chalcidians of i^
Thrace. Some of them relate to homicide, and to heiresses ;
but there is nothing remarkable in them.

And here let us conclude our enquiry into the various con-
stitutions which either actually exist, or have been devised by
theorists.

> Cp. N. Eth. iii. 5. § 8.

H 2

BOOK III Qik)

III. 1 He who would enquire into the nature and various kinds of

government must first of all determine ' What is a state ? ' At

present this is a disputed question. Some say that the state has

done a certain act ; others, no, not the state \ but the oligarchy

or the tyrant. And the legislator or statesman is concerned

entirely with the state ; a constitution or government being an

^f ft 2 arrangement of the inhabitants of a state. But a state is com-

■ posite, and, like any other whole, made up of many parts ; —

I these are the citizens, .who compose it. It is evident, there-

1275 a fore, that we must begin by asking, Who is the citizen, and

what is the meaning of the term ? For here again there may

be a difference of opinion. He who is a citizen in a demo-

3 cracy will often not be a citizen in an oligarchy. Leaving out

of consideration those who have been made citizens, or who

have obtained the name of citizen in any other accidental

I manner, we may say, first, that a citizen is not a citizen

l^arytijif <* ^hl • 4 because he lives in a certain place, for resident aliens and

//v JJ^^f • ' slaves share in the place ; nor is he a citizen who has no legal

right except that of suing and being sued ; for this right may

be enjoyed under the provisions of a treaty. Even resident

aliens in many places possess such rights, although in an

' imperfect f(>rm ; for they are obliged to have a patron.

5 Hence they do but imperfectly participate in citizenship, and

we call them citizens only in a qualified sense, as we might

apply the term to children who are too young to be on the

' Cp. c. 3. § I.

T^he Definition of Citi-x^nship in Theoiy loi

register, or to old men who have been relieved from state III. 1
duties. Of these we do not say simply that they are citizens,
but add in the one case that they are not of age, and in the
other, that they are past the age, or something of that sort ;
the precise expression is immaterial, for our meaning is clear.
Similar difficulties to those which I have mentioned may be
raised and answered about deprived citizens and about exiles. ■<
But the citizen, whom we are seeking to define, is a citizen in .
the strictest sense, against whom no such exception can be \
taken, and his special characteristic is that he shares in the |,
administration of justice, and in offices. Now of offices some &
have a limit of time, and the same persons are not allowed to
hold them twice, or can only hold them after a fixed interval ;
others have no limit of time — for example, the office of dicast
or ecclesiast ^. It may, indeed, be argued that these are not ^
magistrates at all, and that their functions give them no share
in the government. But surely it is ridiculous to say that
those who have the supreme power do not govern. Not to
dwell further upon this, which is a purely verbal question,
what we want is a common term including both dicast and
ecclesiast. Let us, for the sake of distinction, call it 'inde-.
terminate office,' and we will assume that those who share in I
such office are citizens. This is the most comprehensive (8
definition of a citizen, and best suits all those who are generally
so called.

But we must not forget that things of which the underlying
notions differ in kind, one of them being first, another second,
another third, have, when regarded in this relation, nothing,
or hardly anything, worth mentioning in common. Now we 9

^ ' Dicast '= juryman and judge in one: ' ecclesiast ' = member of the
ecclesia or assembly of the citizens.

I02 77;*? Defitiition of Citi':^7ishtp in Practice

III, 1 see that governments differ in kind, and that some of them

1275 b are prior and that others are posterior ; those which are faulty

or perverted are necessarily posterior to those which are

perfect. (What we mean by perversion will be hereafter

explained ^.) The citizen then of necessity differs under each

10 form of government ; and our definition is best adapted to the
citizen of a democracy ; but not necessarily to other states.
For in some states the people are not acknowledged, nor have
they any regular assembly, but only extraordinary ones ; and
suits are distiibuted in turn among the magistrates. At Lace-
daemon, for instance, the Ephors determine suits about con-
tracts, which they distribute among themselves, while the
elders are judges of homicide, and other causes are decided

11 by other magistrates. A similar principle prevails at Car-
thage ^ ; there certain magistrates decide all causes. We may,
indeed, modify our definition of the citizen so as to include
these states. [But strictly taken it only applies in democracies.]

I In other states it is the holder of a determinate, not of an

lindeterniiflate, office who legislates and judges, and to sorne

I or all such holders of determinate offices is reserved the right

of deliberating or judging about some things or about all

32 things. The conception of the citizen now begins to clear up.

g He who has the power to take part in the deliberative or

^judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen

l^f that state ; and speaking generally, a state is a body of

citizens sufficing for the purposes of life.

2 But in practice a citizen is defined to be one of whom both

X the parents are citizens ; others insist on going further back ;

^' say to two or three or more grandparents. This is a short

and practical definition ; but there are some who raise the

> Cp. c. 6. § II. " Cp. ii. II. § 7.

Difficulties Created by l{evolutions 103

further question : How this third or fourth ancestor came to III. 2
be a citizen ? Gorgias of Leontini, partly because he was in
a difficulty, partly in irony, said — 'Mortars are made by the
mortar-makers, and the citizens of Larissa are also a manu-
factured article, made, like the kettles which bear their name
\Kap\.(rcu.oi\^ by the magistrates ^' Yet the question is really 3
simple, for if, according -to the definition just given, they
shared in the government^, they were citizens. [This is a
better definition than the other.] For the words, 'born of
a father or mother, who is a citizen,' cannot possibly apply to
the first inhabitants or founders of a state.

There is a greater difficulty in tlie case of those who have
been made citizens after a revolution, as by Cleisthenes at
Athens after the expulsion of the tyrants, for he enrolled in
tribes a number of strangers and slaves and^ resident aliens.
The doubt in these cases is, not who is, but whether he, who 4
is, ought to be a citizen ; and there will still be a further 1276 a
doubt, whether he who ought not to be a citizen is one in
fact, for what ought not to be is what is false and is not.
Now, there are some who hold office, and yet ought not to 5
hold office, whom we call rulers, although they rule unjustly.
And the citizen was defined by the fact of his holding some
kind of rule or office — he who holds a judicial or legislative!
office fulfils our definition of a citizen. It is evident, there-
fore, that the citizens about whom the doubt has arisen must

* An untranslatable play upon the word Srjfii.ovp'/oi, which means
either ' a magistrate ' or ' an artisan.'

* Cp. c. I. § 12.

^ Inserting Kai before fUTo'iKovs with Bekker in his second edition. If
Kai is omitted, as in all the MSS., we must translate — 'he enrolled in
tribes many luetics, both strangers and slaves ' : or, ' he enrolled in tribes
many strangers, and metics who had been slaves.*

104 When is a State the Samef

III. 2 be called citizens ; whether they ought to be so or not is

a question which is bound up with the previous enquiry ^.

3 A parallel question is raised respecting the state whether

a certain act is or is not an act of the state ; for example, in

the transition from an oligarchy or a tyranny to a democracy.

2 In such cases persons refuse to fulfil their contracts or any
other obligations on the ground that the tyrant, and not the
state, contracted them ; they argue that some constitutions are
established by force, and not for the sake of the common
good. But this would apply equally to democracies, for they
too may be founded on violence, and then the acts of the
democracy will be neither more nor less legitimate than those

3 of an oligarchy or of a tyranny. This question runs up into
another — When shall we say that the state is the same, and
when different ? It would be a very superficial view which
considered only the place and the inhabitants ; for the soil and
the population may be separated, and some of the inhabitants

4 may live in one place and some in another. This, however,
is not a very serious difficulty ; we need only remark that the

I word ' state ' is ambiguous, meaning both state and city.
: )oM-*5u Wv-'I( ' It is further asked: When are men, living in the same
h^ J"^' place, to be regarded as a single city — what is the limit ?

5 Certainly not the wall of the city, for you might surround all
Peloponnesus v/ith a wall. But a city, having such vast
circuit, would contain a nation rather than a state, like Baby-
lon '^, which, as they say, had been taken for three days before

{ 6 some part of the inhabitants became aware of the fact. This

difficulty may, however, with advantage be deferred' to

. another occasion ; the statesman has to consider the size of

1 Cp. c. I. § I. 2 Cp. ii. 6. § 6.

^ Cp. vii. c. 4 and c. 5.

when is a State the Samei lof A'^.^^^v, >_'^

the state, and whether it should consist of more than one III. 3
nation or not.

Again, shall we say that while the race of inhabitants, as
well as their place of abode, remain the same, the city is also
the same, although the citizens are always dying and being
born, as we call rivers and fountains the same, although the
water is always flowing away and coming again ? Or shall
we say that the generations of men, like the rivers, are the
same, but that the state changes? For, since the state is 1276 b
a community of citizens united by sharing in one form of f
government, when the form of the government changes and |
becomes different, then it may be supposed that the state is "
no longer the same, just as a tragic differs from a comic
chorus, although the members of both may be identical. And 8
in this manner we speak, of every union or composition of
elements, when the form of their composition alters ; for
example, harmony of the same sounds is said to be different,
accordingly as the Dorian or the Phrygian mode is employed.
And if this is true it is evident that the sameness of the state 9
consists chiefly in the sameness of the constitution, and may'^
be called or not called by the same name, whether the inhabi-
tants are the same or entirely different. It is quite another
question, whether a state ought or ought not to fulfil engage-
ments when the form of government changes.

There is a point nearly allied to the preceding : Whether 4
the virtue of a good man and a good cftizen is the same or
not^. But, before entering on this discussion, we must first '
obtain some general notion of the virtue of the citizen. Like 3
the sailor, the citizen is a member of a community. Now, 2
sailors have different functions, for one of them is a rower,
' Cp. N. Eth. V. 2. § II.

I

1 06 The Good JMari and

III. 4 another a pilot, a third a look-out man, and a fourth is
described by some similar term ; and while the precise
definition of each individual's virtue applies exclusively to him,
there is, at the same time, a common definition applicable to
them all. For they have all of them a common object, which
!is safety in navigation. Similarly, one citizen differs from
another, but the sahation of the community is the common
business of them all. This community is the state; the virtue
of the citizen must therefore be relative to the constitution of
which he is a member. If, then, there are many forms of
government, it is evident that the virtue of the good citizen
cannot be the one perfect virtue. But we say that the good

4 man is he who has perfect virtue. Hence it is evident that
the good citizen need not of necessity possess the virtue
which makes a good man.

The same question may also be approached by another road,

5 from a consideration of the perfect state. If the state cannot
be entirely composed of good men, and each citizen is expected
to do his own business well, and must therefore have virtue,

1277 a inasmuch as all the citizens cannot be alike, the virtue of the
citizen and of the good man cannot coincide. All must have
the virtue of the good citizen — thus, and thus only, can the
state be perfect ; but they will not have the virtue of a good
I man, unless we assume that in the good state all the citizens
must be good.

6 Again, the state may be compared to the living being : as
the first elements into which the living being is resolved are
soul and body, as the soul is made up of reason and appetite,
the family of husband and wife, property of master and slave,
so out of all these, as well as other dissimilar elements, the
state is composed; and, therefore, the virtue of all the

the Good Citi'^en 107

citizens cannot possibly be the same, any more than the III. 4
excellence of the leader of a chorus is the same as that of the
performer who stands by his side. I have said enough to 7
show why the two kinds of virtue cannot be absolutely and ^^

always the same.

But will there then be no case in which the virtue of the
good citizen and the viitue of the goou man coincide ? To
this we answer [not that the good citizen, but] that the good
ruler is a good and wise man, and that he who would be
a statesman must be a wise man. And some persons say that 8
even the education of the niler should be of a special kind ; v
for are not the children of kings instructed in riding and
military exercises ? As Euripides says :

' No subtle arts for me, but what the state requires '.'
As though there were a special education needed by a ruler.
If then the virtue of a good ruler is the same as that of a good 9
man, and we assume further that the subject is a citizen as
well as the ruler, the virtue of the good citizen and the virtue
of the good man cannot be always the same, although in some
cases [i.e. in the perfect state] they may; for the virtue of
a ruler differs from that of a citizen. It was the sense of this
difference which made Jason say that ' he felt hungry when he
was not a tyrant,' meaning that he could not endure to live in \
a private station. But, on the other hand, it may be argued 10
that men are praised for knowing both how to rule and how
to obey, and he is said to be a citizen of approved virtue who ■
is able to do both. Now if we suppose the virtue of a good *
man to be that which rules, and the virtue of the citizen to
include ruling and obeying, it cannot be said that they are

' Fragment from the Aeolus, quoted in Stobaeus, 45. 13,

?

io8 The Good Alan and

III. 4 equally worthy of praise. Since, then, it is occasionally held
" that the ruler and the ruled should learn different things and
not the same things, and that the citizen must know and share
.•H:iSi^ in both; the inference is obvious^J There is, indeed, the

rule of a master which is concerned with menial office^ — the
master need not know how to perform these, but may employ
others in the execution of them : anything else would be

12 degrading; and by anything else I mean the menial duties
which vary much in character and are executed by various
classes of slaves, such, for example, as handicraftsmen, who,
as their name signifies, live by the labour of their hands : —

1277 b under these the mechanic is included. Hence in ancient
jtimes, and among some nations, the working classes had no
ihare in the government — a privilege which they only acquired

13 under the extreme democracy. Certainly the good man and
|tlie statesman and the good citizen ought not to learn the

It • 9o'\ grafts of inferiors except for their own occasional use ' ; if

1^ they habitually practise them, there will cease to be a distinc-

tion between master and slave.

14 This is not the rule of which we are speaking ; but there
is a rule of another kind, which is exercised over freemen and
equals by birth — a constitutional rule, which the ruler must
learn by obeying, as he would learn the duties of a general of
cavalry by being under the orders of a general of cavalry, or
the duties of a general of infantry by being under the orders
of a general of infantry, or by having had the command of
a company or brigade. It has been well said that ' he who

15 has never learned to obey cannot be a good commander.' The

* Viz. that some kind of previous subjection is an advantage to the
ruler. Cp. infra, § 14.

' Cp. i, 7. §§ 2-5. * Cp. viii. 2. § 5.

the Good Citizen 109

two are not the same, but the good citizen ought to be capable III. 4
of both ; he should know how to govern like a freeman, and;
how to obey like a freeman — these are the virtues of a citizen.
And, although the temperance and justice of a ruler are dis- i6
tinct fiom those of a subject, the virtue of a good man will
include both ; for the good man, who is fiee and also a subject,
will not have one virtue only, say justice, but he will have
distinct kinds of virtue, the one qualifying him to rule, the
other to obey, and differing as the temperance and courage of
men and women differ^. For a man would be thought a i? N* 5"!
coward if he had no more courage than a courageous woman,
and a woman would be thought loquacious if she imposed no
more restraint on her conversation than the good man ; and
indeed their part in the management of the household is
different, for the duty of the one is to acquire, and of the
other to preserve. Practical wisdom only is characteristic of
the ruler '^ : it would seem that all other virtues must equally ^'
belong to ruler and subject. The virtue of the subject is 18
certainly not wisdom, but only true opinion ; he may be com- "^ 1^
pared to the maker of the flute, while his master is like the
flute-player or user of the flute '.

From these considerations may be gathered the answer to
the question, whether the virtue of the good man is the same
as that of the good citizen, or different, and how far the same,
and how far different *. <^' ^* '^'' '^'' ^7

There still remains one more question about the citizen : 5

Is he only a true citizen who has a share of office, or is the

mechanic to be included ? If they who hold no office are to

be deemed citizens, not every citizen can have this virtue of

1 Cp. i. 13. § 9. * Cp. Rep. iv. 428. '■' Cp. Rep. x. 601 d, e.

♦ Cp. c. 5. § 10; c. 18. § I ; iv. 7. § 2 ; vii. 14. § 8.

1 1 o Are Mechanics Citi'X^ens f*

III. 5 ruling and obeying ^ which makes a citizen ^ And if none of
the lower class are citizens, in which part of the state are
they to be placed ? For they are not resident aliens, and they
1278 a are not foreigners. To this objection may we not reply, that
there is no more absurdity in excluding them than in excluding
slaves and freedmen from any of the above-mentioned classes ?
It must be admitted that we cannot consider all those to be
y citizens who are necessary to the existence of the state; for
example, children are not citizens equally with grown up men,
who are citizens absolutely, but children, not being grown up,

3 are only citizens in a qualified sense. Doubtless in ancient
times, and among some nations, the artisan class were slaves
or foreigners, and therefore the majority of them are so now.
The best form of state will not admit them to citizenship ;
but if they are admitted, then our definition of the virtue of
a citizen will apply to some citizens and freemen only, and

4 not to those who work for their living. The latter class, to
whom toil is a necessity, are either slaves who minister to the
wants of individuals, or mechanics and labourers who are the
servants of the community. These reflections carried a little
further will explain their position ; and indeed what has been
said already is of itself explanation enough.

& Since there are many forms of government there must be

|many varieties of citizens, and especially of citizens who are

Ba4»2tr rft V KV . subjects ; so that under some governments the mechanic and

W. >7 6 ^'^^ labourer will be citizens, but not in others, as, for example,

* Or, ' for this man (i.e. the meaner sort of man) is a citizen and does
not exercise rule ' (see below, § 3, d Z\ koX ovtos TroXhrjs). According
to the way of taking the passage which is followed in the text, ovtos =
6 (xojv rfjv ToiavTr]v dperT/y : according to the second way, it refers to
^dvavffos.

Different Kjnds of Citi^fis

III

in aristocracy or the so-called government of the best (if there III. *
be such an one), in which honours are given according to
virtue and merit ; for no man can practise virtue who is living j
the life of a mechanic or labourer. In oligarchies the qualifi- 6
cation for office is high, and therefore no labourer can ever be
a citizen ; but a mechanic may, for many of them are rich. .
. At Thebes ^ there was a law that no man could hold office 7
who had not retired from business for ten years. In many
states the law goes to the length of admitting aliens ; for in
some democracies a man is a citizen though his mother only
be a citizen [and his father an alien] ; and a similar principle
is applied to illegitimate children ; the law is relaxed when 8
there is a dearth of population. But when the number of
citizens increases, first the children of a male or a female slave '
are excluded ; then those whose mothers only are citizens ;
and at last the right of citizenship is confined to those whose
fathers and mothers are both citizens.

Hence, as is evident, there are different kinds of citizens ; 9
and he is a citizen in the highest sense who shares in the
honours of the state. In the poems of Homer [Achilles
complains of Agamemnon treating him] ' like some dishonoured
stranger ^ ; ' for he who is excluded from the honours of the
state is no better than an alien. But when this exclusion is
concealed, then the object is to deceive one's fellow-country-
men.

As to the question whether the virtue of the good man is the 1-27S b
same as that of the good citizen, the considerations already '° |f *^9
adduced prove that in some states the two are the same, and • ^^VOs^ W
in others different. When they are the same it is not the
virtue of every citizen which is the same as that of the good
' Cp. vi. 7. § 4. a II. ix. 648.

fft

^••f/'

u$

112 Government True and 'Perverted

III. 5 man, but only the virtue of the statesman and of those who
have or may have, alone or in conjunction with others, the
conduct of public affairs.
6 Having determined these questions, we have next to con-
sider whether there is only one form of government or many,
and if many, what they are, and how many, and what are the
differences between them.

i-Q A constitution is the ariangement of magistracies in a state^,

especially of the highest of all. The government is every-
where sovereign in the state, and the constitution is in fact the

2 government. For example, in democracies the people are
supreme, but in oligarchies, the few; and, therefore, we say
that these two forms of government are different : and so in
other cases.

First, let us consider what is the pui-pose of a state, and
how many forms of government there are by which human

3 society is regulated. We have already said, in the former
part of this treatise^, when drawing a distinction between
household-management and the rule of a master, that man is
_byjiature a political animal. And therefore, men, even when
they do not require one another's help, desire to live together
all the same, and are in fact brought together by their common
interests in proportion as they severally attain to any measure

4 of well-being. This is certainly the chief end, both of indi-
viduals and of states. And also for the sake of mere life (in
which there is possibly some noble element) mankind meet
together and maintain the political community, so long as the

5 evils of existence do not greatly overbalance the good ^ And
we all see that men cling to life even in the midst of

» Cp. c. 1. § I ; iv. I. § lo. 2 cp. i. 2. §§ 9, lo.

' Cp. Plato, Polit. 302 A.

Government True and Perverted 113

misfortune, seeming to find in it a natural sweetness and III. 6
happiness.

There is no difficulty in distinguishing the various kinds of
authority; they have been often defined already in popular
works ^ The rule of a master, although the slave by nature 6
and the master by nature have in reality the same interests, is
nevertheless exercised primarily with a view to the interest of
the master, but accidentally considers the slave, since, if the ^,
slave perish, the rule of the master perishes with him. On 7
the other hand, the government of a wife and children and of
a household, which we have called household-management, is
exercised in the first instance for the good of the governed or
for the common good of both parties, but essentially for the
good of the governed, as we see to be the case in medicine, 1279 a
gymnastics, and the arts in general, which are only accidentally
concerned with the good of the artists themselves^. (For
there is no reason why tlie trainer may not sometimes practise
gymnastics, and the pilot is always one of the crew.) The 8
trainer or the pilot considers the good of those committed to
his care. But, when he is one of the persons taken care of,
he accidentally participates in the advantage, for the pilot is
also a sailor, and the trainer becomes one of those in training.
And so in politics : when the state is framed upon the prin- 9
ciple of equality and likeness, the citizens think that they
ought to hold office by turns. In the order of nature every
one would take his turn of service ; and then again, somebody
else would look after his interest, just as he, while in office,
had looked after theirs^. [That was originally the way.]
But nowadays, for the sake of the advantage which is to be '©

* Or, 'in our popular works.' ^ Cp. Plato, Rep. i. 341 d.

' Cp. ii. 2. §§ 6, 7.

114 Classification of Governments

III. 6 gained from the public revenues and from office, men want to
be always in office. One might imagine that the rulers, being
sickly, were only kept in health while they continued in office;
in that case we may be sure that they would be hunting
II after places. The conclusion is evident: that governments,
'which have a regard to the common interest, are constituted
in accordance with strict principles of justice, and are there-
fore true forms ; but those which regard only the interest of
the mlers are all defective and perverted forms, for they arc
despotic, whereas a state is a community of freemen,
7 Having determined these points, we have next to consider
how many forms of government there are, and what they are ;
and in the first place what are the true forms, for when they
are determined the perversions of them will at once be

2 apparent. The words constitution and government have the
-^same meaning, and the government, which is the supreme

authority in states, must be in the hands of one, or of a few,
"- or of many. The true forms of government, therefore, are
those in which the one, or the few, or the many, govern with
a view to the common interest; but governments which rule
with a view to the private interest, whether of the one, or of
the few, or of the many, are perversions ^. For citizens, if
they are truly citizens, ought to participate in the advantages
I, of a state. Of forms of government in which one rules, we

3 call that which regards the common interests, kingship or
royalty ; that in which more than one, but not many, rule,
aristocracy [the rule of the best] ; and it is so called, either
because the rulers are the best men, or because they have at
heart the best interests of the state and of the citizens. But

||: when the citizens at large administer the state for the common

1 Cp. Eth. viii. lo

(I.

Classification of Governments 1 1 y

interest, the government is called by the generic name — a III. 7
constitution [TroXirfia], And there is a reason for this use of
language. One man or a few may excel in virtue ; but of 4
virtue there are many kinds : and as the number increases it
becomes more difficult for them to attain perfection in every 1279 b
kind, though they may in military virtue, for this is found in
the masses. Hence, in a constitutional government the \
fighting- men have the supreme power, and those who possess
arms are the citizens.

Of the above-mentioned forms, the perversions are as 5
follows : — of royalty, tyranny ; of aristocracy, oligarchy ; of
constitutional government, democracy. For tyranny is a kind
of monarchy which has in view the interest of the monarch
only ; oligarchy has in view the interest of the wealthy ;
democracy, of the needy : none of them the common good
of all.

But there are difficulties about these forms of government, 8
and it will therefore be necessary to state a little more at
length the nature of each of them. For he who would make
a philosophical study of the various sciences, and does not
regard practice only, ought not to overlook or omit anything,
but to set forth the truth in every particular. Tyranny, as 2
I was saying, is monarchy exercising the rule of a master
over political society ; oligarchy is when men of property have
the government in their hands ; democracy, the opposite,
when the indigent, and not the men of property, are the
rulers. And here arises the first of our difficulties, and it 3
relates to the definition just given. For democracy is said to
be the government of the many. But what if the many are
men of property and have the power in their liands I In like
manner oligarchy is said to be the government of the few; but
I 2

I I

6 Oligarchy and Democracy Defined

III. 8 what if the poor are fewer than the rich, and have the power
in their hands because they are stronger ? In these cases the
distinction which we have drawn between these different forms
of government would no longer hold good.

4 Suppose, once more, that we add wealth to the few and
poverty to the many, and name the governments accordingly —
an oligarchy is said to be that in which the few and the
wealthy, and a democracy that in which the many and the

5 poor are the rulers — there will still be a difficulty. For, if
the only forms of government are the ones already mentioned,
how shall we describe those other governments also just
mentioned by us, in which the rich are the more numerous
and the poor are the fewer, and both govern in their re-
spective states ?

6 The argument seems to show that, whether in oligarchies
or in democracies, the number of the governing body, whether
the greater number, as in a democracy, or the smaller number,
as in an oligarchy, is an accident due to the fact that the rich
everywhere are few, and the poor numerous. But if so,
there is a misapprehension of the causes of the difference

7 between them. For the real difference between democracy
1280 a| and oligarchy is poverty and wealth. Wherever men rule

' by reason of their wealth, whether they be few or many, that
is an oligarchy, and where the poor rule, that is a demo-
cracy. But as a fact the rich are few and the poor many :
for few are well-to-do, whereas freedom is enjoyed by all,
1 and wealth and freedom are the grounds on which the

I oligarchical and democratical parties respectively claim power
' in the state.
■jS ^Tl/Q Let us begin by considering the common definitions of

. 0 oligarchy and democracy, and what is justice oligarchical and

Political Justice 117

democratical. For all men cling to justice of some kind, but III. 9
their conceptions are imperfect and they do not express the
whole idea. For example, justice is thought by them to be,
and is, eguality, not, however, for all, but only for ec^uals.
And ineq^uality is thought to be, and is, justice ; neither is 2
this for all, but only for unequals. When the persons are
omitted, then men judge erroneously. The reason is that
they are passing judgment on themselves, and most people
are bad judges in their own case. And whereas justice 3
implies a relation to persons as well as to things, and a just
distribution, as I have already said in the Ethics ', embraces
alike persons and things, they acknowledge the equality of the
things, but dispute about the merit of the persons, chiefly for
the reason which I have just given — because they are bad
judges in their own affairs ; and secondly, because both the
parties to the argument are speaking of a limited and partial -y
justice, but imagine themselves to be speaking of absolute
justice. For those who are unequal in one respect, for 4
example wealth, consider themselves to be unequal in all ;
and any who are equal in one respect, for example freedom, .
consider themselves to be equal in all. But they leave out
the capital point. For if men met and associated out of 5
regard to wealth only, their share in the state would be
proportioned to their property, and the oligarchical doctrine
would then seem to carry the day. It would not be just
that he who paid one mina sliould have the same share of
a hundred minae, '^ whether of the principal or of the profits -,
as he who paid the remaining ninety-nine. But a state 6

1 N. Eth. V. 3. § 4.

^ Or, with Bernays, ' either ia the case of the original contributors
or their suCLesso;s.'

1 1 8 The End of the State

III. 9 exists for the sake of a good life, and not for the sake of life
•" only : if life only were the object, slaves and brute animals
I might form a state, but they cannot, for they have no share
in happiness or in a life of free choice. Nor does a state
exist for the sake of alliance and security from injustice ^, nor
yet for the sake of exchange and mutual intercourse; for then
the Tyrrhenians and the Carthaginians, and all who have
commercial treaties with one another, would be the citizens of

7 one state. True, they have agreements about imports, and en-
gagements that they will do no wrong to one another, and

1280 b written articles of alliance. But there are no magistracies
common to the contracting parties who will enforce their
engagements ; different states have each their own magistracies.
Nor does one state take care that the citizens of the other
are such as they ought to be, nor see that those who come
under the terms of the treaty do no wrong or wickedness at
. all, but only that tliey do no injustice to one another.

8 Whereas, those who care for good government take into
consideration [the larger question of] virtue and vice in states.
Whence it may be further inferred that '^virtue must be the
serious care of a state which truly deserves the name'^: for
[without this ethical end] the community becomes a mere
alliance which differs only in place from alliances of which
the members live apart; and law is only a convention, 'a
surety to one another of justice,' as the sophist Lycophron
says, and has no real power to make the citizens good and
just.

9 This is obvious ; for suppose distinct places, such as

1 Cp. c. I. §4.

^ Or, ' virtue must be the care of a state which is truly so called, and
not nietely in name.'

T-he End of the State 119

Corinth and Megara, to be united by a wall, still they would m. 9
not be one city, not even if the citizens had the right to lo
intermany, which is one of the rights peculiarly characteristic
of states. Again, if men dwelt at a distance from one
another, but not so far off as to have no intercourse, and
there were laws among them that they should not wrong
each other in their exchanges, neither would this be a state.
Let us suppose that one man is a carpenter, another a
husbandman, another a shoemaker, and so on, and that their
number is ten thousand : nevertheless, if they have nothing in \
common but exchange, alliance, and the like, that would not !
constitute a state. Why is this ? Surely not because they 1 1
are at a distance from one another : for even supposing that
such a community were to meet in one place, and that each
man had a house of his own, which was in a manner his
state, and that they made alliance with one another, but only
against evil-doers ; still an accurate thinker would not deem
this to be a state, if their intercourse with one another was of
the same character after as before their union. It is clear 12
then that a state is not a mere society, having a common
place, established for the prevention of crime and for the sake
of exchange. These are conditions without which a state
cannot exist ; but all of them together do not constitute
a state, _which is a community of well-being in famihes and,
aggregations of families, for the sake of a perfect and self-^
sufficing life. Such a community can only be established 13'
among those who live in the same place and intermarry.
Hence arise in cities family connexions, brotherhoods,
common sacrifices, amusements which draw men together.
They are created by friendship, for friendship is the motive
of society. The end is the good life, and these are the

:-f

I 20

Sovereignty

III. 9 means towards it. And the state is the union of families and

14 villages having for an end a perfect and self-sufficing life, by
which we mean a happy and honourable life ^.

Our conclusion, then, is that political society exists for tlie

15 sake of noble actions, and not of mere companionship. And
they who contribute most to such a society have a greater

1 share in it than those who have the same or a greater freedom
\ or nobility of birth but are inferior to them in political virtue ;
i or than those who exceed them in wealth but are surpassed
':^ by them in virtue.

From what has been said it will be clearly seen that all the
partisans of different forms of government speak of a part of
justice only.
10 There is also a doubt as to what is to be the supreme
power in the state : — Is it the multitude ? Or the wealthy ?
Or the good ? Or the one best man ? Or a tyrant ? Any
of these alternatives seems to involve disagreeable conse-
quences. If the poor, for example, because they are more in
number, divide among themselves the property of the rich,
is not this unjust ? No, by heaven (will be the reply), for

2 the lawful authority [i. e. the people] willed it. But if this is
not injustice, pray what is ? Again, when [in the first
division] all has been taken, and the majority divide anew the
property of the minority, is it not evident, if this goes on,
that they will ruin the state ? Yet surely, virtue is not the
ruin of those who possess her, nor is justice destructive of

\, a state '^; and therefore this law of confiscation clearly cannot

3 be just. If it were, all the acts of a tyrant must of necessity
oe just ; for he only coerces other men by superior power,
!just as the multitude coerce the rich. But is it just, then,

1 Co. i. 2. § 8; N. Eth, i. 7. § 6. * Cp. Plato, Rep. i. 351, 352.

Sovereimty of the People

121

that the few and the wealthy should be the rulers ? And III. 10
what if they, in like manner, rob and plunder the people — is
this just ? If so, the other case [i. e. the case of the
majority plundering the minority] will likewise be just. But 4
there can be no doubt that all these things are wrong and
unjust.

Then ought the good to rule and have supreme power ?
But in that case everybody else, being excluded from power,
will be dislionoured. For the offices of a state are posts of
honour; and if one set of men always hold them, the rest*^
must be deprived of them. Then will it be well that the one ^5
best man should rule ? Nay, that is still more oligarchical,
for the number of those who are dishonoured is thereby
increased. Some one may say that it is bad for a man,
subject as he is to all the accidents of human passion, to
have the supreme power, rather than the law. But what if the
law itself be democratical or oligarchical, how will that help
us out of our difficulties ^ ? Not at all ; the same conse-
quences will follow.

Most of these questions may be reserved for another U
occasion. The principle that the multitude ought to be
supreme rather than the few best is capable of a satisfactory
explanation, and, though not free from difficulty, yet seems to
contain an element of truth. For the many, of whom each 2
individual is but an ordinary person, when they meet together 1281 b
may very likely be better than the few good, if regarded not
individually but collectively, just as a feast to which many
contribute is better than a dinner provided out of a single '
purse. For each individual among the many has a share
of virtue and prudence, and when they meet together they
* Cp. c. II. § 20.

122

Treasons for and against

III. 11 become in a manner one man, who has many feet, and hands,
'^- and senses ; that is a figure of their mind and disposition.

3 iHence the many are better judges than a single man of music
4nd poetry ; for some understand one part, and some another,

4 land among them, they understand the whole. There is
a similar combination of qualities in good men, who differ
from any individual of the many, as the beautiful are said
to differ from those v/ho are not beautiful, and works of
art from realities, because in them the scattered elements are
combined, although, if taken separately, the eye of one person
or some other feature in another person would be fairer than

5 in the picture. Whether this principle can apply to every
democracy, and to all bodies of men, is not clear. Or rather,
by heaven, in some cases it is impossible of application ; for
the argument would equally hold about brutes ; and wherein,
it will be asked, do some men differ from brutes ? But there
may be bodies of men about whom our statement is neverthe-

6 less true. And if so, the difficulty which has been already
raised, and also another which is akin to it — viz. what power
should be assigned to the mass of freemen and citizens, who
are not rich and have no personal merit — are both solved.

7 Tliere is still a danger in allowing them to share the great
offices of state, for their folly will lead them into error, and
their dishonesty into crime. But there is a danger also in not
letting them share, for a state in which many poor men are

8 excluded from office will necessarily be full of enemies. The
only way of escape is to assign to them some deliberative and
judicial functions. For this reason Solon ^ and certain other

.legislators give them the power of electing to offices, and

of calling the magistrates to account, but they do not allow

1 Cp, ii. 12. § 5.

Sovereigfity of the People 123

them to liold oiBce singly. When they meet together their III. 11
perceptions are quite good enough, and combined with the 9
better class they are useful to the state (just as impure .
food when mixed with what is pure sometimes makes the
entire mass more wholesome than a small quantity of the
pure would be), but each individual, left to himself, forms
an imperfect judgment. On the other hand, the popular lo
fonnjpf^government involves certain difficulties. In the first
place, it might be objected that he who can judge of the
healing of a sick man would be one who could himself
heal his disease, and make him whole — that is, in other
words, the physician ; and so in all professions and arts. 1282 a.
As, then, the physician ought to be called to account by
physicians, so ought men in general to be called to account
by their peers. But physicians are of three kinds: — there 11
is the apothecary, and there is the physician of the higher
class, and thirdly the intelligent man who has studied the
art : in all arts there is such a class ; and we attribute
the power of judging to them quite as much as to professors
of the art. Now, does not the same principle apply to 12
elections ? For a right election can only be made by those
who have knowledge; a geometrician, for example, will
choose rightly in matters of geometry, or a pilot in matters
of steering ; and, even if there be some occupations and
arts with which private persons are familia;-, they certainly
cannot judge better than those who know. So that, according 13
to this argument, neither the election of magistrates, nor the
calling of them to account, should be entrusted to the many, i^
Yet possibly these objections are to a great extent met by
our old answer, that if the people are not utterly degraded,
although individually they may be worse judges than those

124 J^aso?2s for and against

III. 11 who have special knowledge — as a body they are as good
or better. Moreover, there are some artists whose works
are judged of solely, or in the best manner, not by them-
selves, but by those who do not possess the art ; for example,
the knowledge of the house is not limited to the builder
only; the user, or, in other words, the master, of the
.^ house will even be a better judge than the builder, just as
the pilot will judge better of a rudder than the carpenter,
and the guest will judge better of a feast than the cook.

15 This difficulty seems now to be sufficiently answered, but
there is another akin to it. That inferior persons should
have authority in greater matters than the good would appear
to be a strange thing, yet the election and calling to account
of the magistrates is the greatest of all. And these, as
I was saying, are functions which in some states are assigned
to the people, for the assembly is supreme in all such matters.

16 Yet persons of any age, and having but a sniall property
qualification, sit in the assembly and delibeiate and judge,
although for the great officers of state, such as controllers and
generals, a high qualification is required. This difficulty may
be solved in the same manner as the preceding, and the
present practice of democracies may be really defensible.

17 For the power does not reside in the dicast, or senator,
or ecclesiast, but in the court and the senate, and the
assembly, of which individual senators, or ecclesiasts, or

18 dicasts, are only parts or members. And for this reason
the many may claim to have a higher authority than the
few ; for the people, and the senate, and the courts consist of
many persons, and their property collectively is greater than
the property of one or of a few individuals holding great
offices. But enoush of this.

Equality and Inequality 125-

The discussion of the first question ^ shows nothing so HI. 11
clearly as that laws, when good, should be supreme; and '9
that the magistrate or magistrates should regulate those ,
matters only on which the laws are unable to speak with ■
precision owing to the difficulty of any general principle
embracing all particulars ". But what are good laws has 20
not yet been clearly explained; the old difficulty remains •''.
The goodness or badness, justice or injustice, of laws is
of necessity relative to the constitutions of states. But if 21
so, true forms of government will of necessity have just laws,>.
and perverted forms of government will have unjust laws.

In all sciences and arts the end is a good, and especially and 12
above all in the highest of all * — this is the political science
of which the good is justice, in other words, the common 1
interest. All men think justice to be a sort of equality ; and
to a certain extent ^ they agree in the philosophical distinctions
which have been laid down by us about Ethics*. For
they admit that justice is a thing having relation to persons,
and that equals ought to have equality. But there still re- 2
mains a question — equality or inequality of what? Here is a
difficulty which the political philosopher has to resolve. For
very likely some persons will say that offices of state ought
to be unequally distributed according to superior excellence,
in whatever respect, of the citizen, although there is no other
difference between him and the rest of the community ; for
that those who differ in any one respect have different rights
and claims. But, surely, if this is true, the complexion or 3
height of a man, or any other advantage, will be a reason

1 Cp. c. 10. § I. * Cp. N. Eth. V. 10. § 4.

s__Cp^c. 10. § 5. ■* Cp. i. I. § I ; N. Eth. i. i. § I.

* Cp7c79. § I. « Cp. N. Eth. V. 3.

1 2d Covfiicting Claims

III. 12 for his obtaining a greater share of political rights. The

4 error here lies upon the surface, and may be illustrated from

tthe other arts and sciences. When a number of flute-players
are equal in their art, there is no reason why those of them
who are better born should have better flutes given to them ;
for they will not play any better on the flute, and the superior
instrument should be reserved for him who is the superior
artist. If what I am saying is still obscure, it will be made

5 clearer as we proceed. For if there were a superior flute-
player who was far inferior in birth and beauty, although
either of these may be a greater good than the art of flute-
playing, and persons gifted with these qualities may excel the
flute-player in a greater ratio than he excels them in his art,

1283 a still he ought to have the best flutes given to him, unless
the advantages of wealth and birth contribute to excellence

6 in flute-playing, which they do not. Moreover upon this
principle any good may be compared with any other. For
if a given height, then height in general may be measured
either against height or against freedom. Thus if A excels in
height more than B in virtue, and height in general is more
excellent than virtue, all things will be commensurable
[which is absurd] ; for if a ceitain magnitude is greater
than some otlier, it Is clear that some other will be equal.

7 But since no such comparison can be made, it is evident that
there is good reason why in politics men do not ground their
claim to oflice on every sort of inequality any more than
in the arts. For if some be slow, and others swift, that
is no reason why the one should have little and the others
much; it is in gymnastic contests that such excellence is

8 rewarded. Whereas the rival claims of candidates for office
can only be based on the possession of elements which enter

to Sovereign Power 127

o
into the composition of a state, [such as wealth, virtue, etc.]. III. 12
And therefore the noble, or freeborn, or rich, may with
good reason claim office ; for holders of offices must be
freemen and tax-payers : a state can be no more composed
entirely of poor men th^ln entirely of slaves. But if wealth 9
and freedom are necessary elements, justice and valour are
equally so ^ ; for without the former a state cannot exist
at all, without the latter not well.

If the existence of the state is alone to be considered, then 13
it would seem that all, or some at least, of these claims
are just ; but, if we take into account a good life, as I have
already said-, education and virtue have superior claims.N
As, however, those who are equal in one thing ought not to |
be equal in all, nor those who are unequal in one thing to j
be unequal in all, it is certain that all forms of govern-
ment which rest on either of these principles are perversions. ^
All men have a claim in a certain sense, as 1 have already a
admitted, but they have not an absolute claim. The rich claim
because they have a greater share in the land, and land is the
common element of the state ; also they are generally more
trustworthy in contracts. The free claim under the same
title as the noble ; for they are nearly akin. And the noble
are citizens in a truer sense than the ignoble, since good
birth is always valued in a man's own home and country'.
Another reason is, that those who are sprung from better 13
ancestors are likely to be better men, for nobility is excellence j
of race. Virtue, too, may be truly said to have a claim, for ''
justice has been acknowledged by us to be a social * virtue,
and it implies all others ^ Again, the many may urge their 4

1 Cp. iv. 4. §§ 12-16. 2 cp. c. 9. §§ 14, 15.

2 Cp. i. 6. § 7. ■* Cp. i. i. § 16. ' Cp. N. Eth. v. i. § 15.

128 Co7iflicting claims to Power

III. 13 claim against the few ; for, when taken collectively, and

compared with the few, they are stronger and richer and

1283 b better. But, what if the good, the rich, the noble, and the

other classes who make up a state, are all living together in

the same city; will there, or will there not, be any doubt

5 who shall rule ? — No doubt at all in determining who ought
to rule in each of the above-mentioned forms of government.
For states are characterized by diflerences in their governing
bodies — one of them has a government of the rich, another
of the virtuous, and so on. But a difficulty arises when all

6 these elements coexist. How are we to decide ? Suppose
the virtuous to be very few in number : may we consider
their numbers in relation to their duties, and ask whether they
are enough to administer the state, or must they be so many as
will make up a state ? Objections may be urged against all

7 the aspirants to political power. For those who found their
^claims on wealth or family have no basis of justice; on this

principle, if any one person were richer than all the rest, it is
clear that he ought to be the ruler of them. In like manner
he who is very distinguished by his birth ought to have the
superiority over all those who claim on the ground that they are

8 freeborn. In an aristocracy, or government of the best, a like
difficulty occurs about virtue ; for if one citizen be better than
the other members of the government, however good they
may be, he too, upon the same principle of justice, should rule
over them. And if the people are to be supreme because they
are stronger than the few, then if one man, or more than one,
but not a majority, is stronger than the many, they ought to
rule, and not the many.

9 All these considerations appear to show that none of
the principles on wliich men claim to rule, and hold all

Conjiicting Claims to Power 129

other men in subjection to them, are strictly right. To III. 13
those who claim to be the masters of state on the ground ^o
of their virtue or their wealth, the many might fairly answer
that they themselves are often better and richer than the
few — I do not say individually, but collectively. And ir
another ingenious objection which is sometimes put forward
may be met in a similar manner. Some persons doubt
whether the legislator who desires to make the justest laws
ought to legislate with a view to the good of the higher
classes or of the many, when the case which we have
mentioned occurs [i. e. when all the elements coexist ^].
Now what is just or right is to be interpreted in the sense la
of ' what is equal ' ; and that which is right in the sense
of being equal is to be considered with reference to the
advantage of the state, and the common good of the citizens.
And a citizen is one who shares in governing and being
governed. He differs under different forms of government, 1284 a
but in the best state he is one who is able and willing to be
governed and to govern with a view to the life of virtue.

If, however, there be some one person, or more than one, 13
although not enough to make up the full complement of a
state, whose virtue is so pre-eminent that the virtues or the
political capacity of all the rest admit of no comparison with
his or theirs, he or they can be no longer regarded as part of
a state ; for justice will not be done to the superior, if he is
reckoned only as the equal of those who are so far inferior to
him in virtue and in political capacity. Such an one may
truly be deemed a God among men. Hence we see that 14
legislation is necessarily concerned only with those who are
equal in birth and in powei- ; and that for men of pre-eminent
* Cp. § 4.

I30

The One Best Man

i7q

III. 13 virtue there is no law — they are themselves a law. Any one
would be ridiculous who attempted to make laws for them :
they would probably retort what, in the fable of Antisthenes,
the lions said to the hares [' where are your claws ? '],
when in the council of the beasts the latter began haranguing

15 and claiming equality for all. And for this reason democratic
states have instituted ostracism ; equality is above all things
their aim, and therefore they ostracise and banish from

Uhe city for a time those who seem to predominate too much
through their wealth, or the number of their friends, or

16 through any other political influence. Mythology tells us that
the Argonauts left Heracles behind for a similar reason ; the
ship Argo would not take him because she feared that he would
have been too much for the rest of the crew. Wherefore
those who denounce tyranny and blame the counsel which
Periander gave to Thrasybulus cannot be held altogether just in

ly their censure. The story is that Periander, when the herald
was sent to ask counsel of him, said nothing, but only cut off
the tallest ears of corn till he had brought the field to a level.
The herald did not know the meaning of the action, but
came and reported what he had seen to Thrasybulus, who
understood that he was to cut off the principal men in the

18 state*; and this is a policy not only expedient for tyrants
or in practice confined to them, but equally necessary in

^oligarchies and democracies. Ostracism '^ is a measure of the
I same kind, which acts by disabling and banishing the most

1 9' prominent citizens. Great powers do the same to whole
cities and nations, as the Athenians did to the Samians,
Chians, and Lesbians ; no sooner had they obtained a firm
grasp of the empire, than they humbled their allies contrary

» Cp. V. 10. § 13. " Cp. V. 3. § 3.

Ostracism 131

to treaty ; and the Persian king has repeatedly crushed the m. 13
Medes, Babylonians, and other nations, when their spirit has 1284 b
been stirred by the recollection of their former greatness.

The problem is a universal one, and equally concerns all 20
forms of government, true as well as false; for, although
perverted forms with a view to their own interests may
adopt this policy, those which seek the common interest do
so likewise. The same thing may be observed in the arts 21
and sciences ^ ; for the painter will not allow the figure to
have a foot which, however beautiful, is not in proportion,
nor will the ship-builder allow the stern or any other part
of the vessel to be unduly large, any more than the chorus-
master will allow any one who sings louder or better than all
the rest to sing in the choir. ^ Monarchs, too, may practise 22
compulsion and still live in harmony with their cities, if
their government is for the interest of the state '^. Hence
where there is an acknowledged superiority the argument in|
favour of ostracism is based upon a kind of political justice.)
It would certainly be better that the legislator should from the 33
first so order his state as to have no need of such a remedy.
But if the need arises, the next best thing is that he should
endeavour to correct the evil by this or some similar measure.
The principle, however, has not been fairly applied in states ;
for, instead of looking to the public good, they have used
ostracism for factious purposes. It is true that under perverted 24
forms of government, and from their special point of view,
such a measure is just and expedient, but it is also clear that ^
it is not absolutely just. In the perfect state there would be

* Cp. V. 3. § 6 ; 9. § 7 ; vii. 4. § 10 ; Rep. iv, 420.

* Or, ' Monarchies do not differ in this respect (i. e. the employment
of compulsion) from free states, but their government must be,' etc.

K 2

132 Kjn^y T^l^

III. 13 great doubts about the use of it, not when appHed to excess
in strength, wealth, popularity, or the like, but when used
against some one who is pre-eminent in virtue, — what is to
25 be done with him ? Mankind will not say that such an
one is to be expelled and exiled ; on the other hand, he
ought not to be a subject — that would be as if men should
claim to rule over Zeus on the principle of rotation of
office. The only alternative is that all should joyfully obey
such a ruler, according to what seems to be the order of
nature, and that men like him should be kings in their state
for life.

?• /■/»• /C>^> 14 The preceding discussion, by a natural transition, leads
to the consideration of royalty, which we admit to be one
of the true forms of government ^. Let us see whether in
order to be well governed a state or country should be under
the rule of a king or under some other form of government ;
and whether monarchy, although good for some, may not be
2 bad for others. But first we must determine whether there is
1285 a one species of royalty or many. It is not easy to see that
there are many, and that the manner of government is not the
same in all of them.

13 (i) Of royalties according to law, the Lacedaemonian is
' . ^ thought to answer best to the true pattern ; but there the royal

/^cio, 0) ►W/VoT^ ■ power is not absolute, except when the kings go on an
O^i^ 'expedition, and then they take the command. Matters of

' 4 religion are likewise committed to them. The kingly office is

\ in truth a kind of generalship, irresponsible and perpetual.

^ The king has not the power of life and death, except ^

* ii. 9. § 29.

^ Omitting tV rivi BaaiKda, which is bracketed by Bekker in his 2nd
edit.

Varieties of Kjngly T{ule 133

when upon a campaign and in the field ; after the manner of III. 14
the ancients which is described in Homer. For Agamemnon
is patient when he is attacked in the assembly, but when the
army goes out to battle he has the power even of life and
death. Does he not say ? — 5

' When I find a man skulking apart from the battle, nothing
shall save him from the dogs and vultures, for in my hands is
death ^'

This, then, is one form of royalty — a generalship for life :
and of such royalties some are hereditary and others elective.

US There is another sort of monarchy not uncommon 6. ■" '

among the barbarians, which nearly resembles tyranny. But /W-eSM<c /iP'w
even this is legal and hereditary. For barbarians, being more 1 HwKId ^o ■
servile in character than Hellenes, and Asiatics than I .
Europeans, do not rebel against a despotic government. Such 7
royalties have the nature of tyrannies because the people are
by nature slaves ^ ; but there is no danger of their being /
overthrown, for they are hereditary and legal. Wherefore
also their guards are such as a king and not such as a tyrant
would employ, that is to say, they are composed of
citizens, whereas the guards of tyrants are mercenaries-) For "^ W^'h^ '^'^
kings rule according to law over voluntary subjects, but
tyrants over involuntary ; and the one are guarded by their
fellow-citizens, the others are guarded against them.

These are two forms of monarchy, and there was a 8 - , ,

third (3) which existed in ancient Hellas, called an Aesym- ///^

netia or dictatorship. This may be defined generally as an ,:: / ^ A
elective tyranny, which, like the barbarian monarchy, is legal, 7

^ II. ii. 391-393. The last clause is not found in our Homer.
^ Cp. i. 2. § 4. ^ Cp. V. 10. § 10.

134 Ki^^^ ^'^ ^^^ Heroic ^g^s

III. 14 but differs from it in not being hereditary. Sometimes the

9 office is held for Hfe, sometimes for a term of years, or until

certain duties have been performed. For example, the

Mitylenaeans elected Pittacus leader against the exiles, who

10 were headed by Antimenides and Alcaeus the poet. And
Alcaeus himself says in one of his ^ irregular songs *, ' They
chose Pittacus tyrant,' and he reproaches his fellow-citizens
for

' having made tlie low-born Pittacus tyrant of the spiritless
12S5b and ill-fated city, with one voice shouting his praises.'

1 1 These forms of goveinment have always had the character
of despotism, because they possess tyrannical power ; but
inasmuch as they are elective and acquiesced in by their
subjects, they are kingly.

(4) There is a fourth species of kingly rule — that of the
heroic times — which was hereditary and legal, and was exer-

12 cised over willing subjects. For the first chiefs were bene-
p. liC factors of the people^ in arts or arms ; they either gathered

llj 1 them into a community, or procured land for them ; and thus

they became kings of voluntary subjects, and their power was
inherited by their descendants. They took the command in
war and presided over the sacrifices, except those which
required a priest. They also decided causes either with or
without an oath ; and when they swore, the form of the oath

13 was the stretching out of their sceptre. In ancient times their
power extended to all things whatsoever, in city and countiy,
as well as in foreign parts ; but at a later date they relin-
quished several of these privileges, and others the people took
from them, until in some states nothing was left to them

' Or, ' banquet-odes,' OKoKia, ' Cp. v. c. 10. § 3.

#

1;

Is Monarchy a Goodt' 135-

but the sacrifices ; and wliere they retained more of the III. 14
reality they had only the right of leadership in war beyond
the border.

These, then, are the four kinds of royalty. First the 14
monarchy of tlie heroic ages ; this was exercised over volun-
tary subjects, but limited to certain functions ; the king was
a general and a judge, and had the control of religion. The
second is that of the barbarians, which is an hereditary
despotic goveinment in accordance with law. A third is the
power of the so-called Aesyranete or Dictator; this is an
elective tyranny. The fourth is the Lacedaemonian, which
is in fact a generalship, hereditary and perpetual. These 15
four forms differ from one another in the manner which
I have described.

There is a fifth form of kingly rule in which one has the y,

disposal of all, just as each tribe or each state has the disposal
of the public property ; this form corresponds to the control
of a household. For as household management is the kingly
rule of a house, so kingly rule is the household management
of a city, or of a nation, or of many nations.

Of these forms we need only consider two, the Lacedae- 15
monian and the absolute royalty ; for most of the others lie in
a region between them, having less power than the last, and
more than the first. Thus the enquiry is reduced to two 2
points : first, is it advantageous to the state that there should
be a perpetual general, and if so, should the office be confined
to one family, or open to the citizens in turn ? Secondly, is 1286 a
it well that a single man should have the supreme power in all
things ? The first question falls under the head of laws ' .

rather than of constitutions ; for perpetual generalship might
equally exist under any form of government, so that this 3

B

1 3 <^ Is not the J{ule of "Many Better f

III. 15 matter may be dismissed for the present., The other kind of
royalty is a sort of constitution ; this we have now to con-
sider, and briefly to run over the difficulties involved in it.
We will begin by enquiring whether it is more advantageous
to be ruled by the best man or by the best laws ^.
4 The advocates of royalty maintain that the laws speak only
^ ^ in general terms, and cannot provide for circumstances ; and
that for any science to abide by written rules is absurd. Even
in Egypt the physician is allowed to alter his treatment after
the fourth day, but if sooner, he takes the risk. Hence it is
largued that a government acting according to written laws is

Siplainly not the best. Yet surely the ruler cannot dispense with
the general principle which exists in law ; and he is a better
ruler who is free from passion than he who is passionate.
Whereas the law is passionless, passion must ever sway the
heart of man.

6 Yes, some one will answer, but then on the other hand an
individual will be better able to advise in particular cases. [To
whom we in turn make reply :] A king must legislate, and
laws must be passed, but these laws will have no authority
when they miss the mark, though in all other cases retaining
their authority. [Yet a further question remains behind :]
When the law cannot determine a point at all, or not well,

7 should the one best man or should all decide ? According to
our present practice assemblies meet, sit in judgment, deliberate
and decide, and their judgments all relate to individual cases.
Now any member of the assembly, taken separately, is cer-
tainly inferior to the wise man. But the state is made up of
many individuals. And as a feast to which all the guests

jcontribute is better than a banquet furnished by a single man ^,
* Cp. Plato, Polit. pp. 293-295. ' Cp. supra, c. 11. § 2.

Constitutional History of Greece 137

ISO z^ multitude is a better judge of many things than any III. 15
individual.

Again, the many are more incorruptible than the few ; they 8 ^
are like the greater quantity of water which is less easily cor-
rupted than a little. The individual is liable to be overcome
by anger or by some other passion, and then his judgment is
necessarily perverted ; but it is hardly to be supposed that a
great number of persons would all get into a passion and go
wrong at the same moment. Let us assume that they are 9
freemen, never acting in violation of the law, but filling up the
gaps which the law is obliged to leave. Or, if such virtue is
scarcely attainable by the multitude, we need only suppose
that the'- majority are good men and good citizens, and ask
which will be the more incorruptible, the one good ruler, or
the many who are all good ? Will not the many ? But, you 1286 b
will say, theie may be parties among them, whereas the one
man is not divided against himself. To which we may 10
answer that their character is as good as his. If we call the
rule of many men, who are all of them good, aristocracy, and
the iTjle of one man royalty, then aristocracy will be better for
states than royalty, whether the government is supported by
force or not \ provided only that a number of men equal in
virtue can be found. .

The first governments were kingships, probably for tliis p Aj?^"^/* -
reason, because of old, when cities were small, men of eminent I ^. /*^' ~
virtue were few. They were made kings because they were ' ~
benefactors ^, and benefits can only be bestowed by good
men. But when many persons equal in merit arose, no longer
enduring the pre-eminence of one, they desired to have a
commonwealth, and set up a constitution. The ruling class 12
^ Cp. infra, § 15. 2 Cp. c. 14. § 12.

138 Constitutional History of Greece

III. 15 soon deteriorated and enriched themselves out of the public
treasury ; riches became the path to honour, and so oligar-
chies naturally grew up. These passed into tyrannies and
tyrannies into democracies ; for love of gain in the ruling
classes was always tending to diminish their number, and so
to strengthen the masses, who in the end set upon their
masters and established democracies. Since cities have

13 increased in size, no other form of government appears to
be any longer possible ^.

Even supposing the principle to be maintained that kingly
power is the best thing for states, how about the family ot the
king ? Are his children to succeed him ? If they are no

14 better than anybody else, that will be mischievous. But
[says the lover of royalty] the king, though he might, will
not hand on his power to his children. That, however, is
hardly to be expected, and is too much to ask of human
nature. There is also a difficulty about the force which he

y is to employ ; should a king have guards about him by whose

15 aid he may be able to coerce the refractory ? but if not, how
will he administer his kingdom ? Even if he be the lawful
sovereign who does nothing arbitrarily or contrary to law,
still he must have some force wherewith to maintain the law.

16 In the case of a limited monarchy there is not much difficulty
in answering this question ; the king must have such force as
will be more than a match for one or more individuals, but
not so great as that of the people. The ancients observed
this principle when they gave the guards to any one whom
they appointed dictator or tyrant. Thus, when Dionysius
asked the Syracusans to allow him guards, somebody advised
that they should give him only a certain number.

i Cp. iv. 6. § 6; 13. § 10.

The J^de of One is thought %)n?iatural 139

At this place in the discussion naturally follows the enquiry III. 16
respecting the king who acts solely according to his own "
will ; he has now to be considered. The so-called limited
monarchy, or kingship according to law, as I have already
remarked ^, is not a distinct form of government, for under all
governments, as, for example, in a democracy or aristocracy,
there may be a general holding office for life, and one person
is often made supreme over the internal administration of
a state. A magistracy of this kind exists at Epidamnus 2,
and also at Opus, but in the latter city has a more limited
power. Now, absolute monarchy, or the arbitrary rule of 2
a sovereign over all the citizens, in a city which consists of
equals, is thought by some to be quite contrary to nature ; it
is argued that those who are by nature equals must have the
same natural right and worth, and that for unequals to have
an equal share, or for equals to have an unequal share, in the
offices of state, is as bad as for different bodily constitutions
to have the same food and clothing or the same diffeient.
Wherefore it is thought to be just that among equals every 3
one be ruled as well as rule, and that all should have their
turn. We thus arrive at law ; for an order of succession
implies law. And the rule of the law is preferable to that I
of any individual. On the same principle, even if it be better 4
for certain individuals to govern, they should be made only
guardians and ministers of the law. For magistrates there
must be, — this is admitted ; but then men say that to give
authority to any one man when all are equal is unjust. There
may indeed be cases which the law seems unable to determine,
but in such cases can a man ? Nay, it will be replied, the 5
law trains officers for this express purpose, and appoints them
^ Cp. c. 15. § 2. « Cp. V. I. §§ 10, 1 1 ; 4. § 7,

140 Law the True 'Ruler

III. 16 to deteimine matters which are left undecided by it to the
best of their judgment. Further it permits them to make any
amendment of the existing laws which experience suggests.
[But still they are only the ministers of the law.] He who
bids the law rule, may be deemed to bid God and Reason
alone rule, but he who bids man rule adds an element of the
beast ; for desire is a wild beast, and passion perverts the
minds of rulers, even when they are the best of men. The

6 law is reason unaffected by desire. We are told that a patient
should call in a physician ; he will not get better if he is

7 doctored out of a book. But the parallel of the arts is
clearly not in point ; for the physician does nothing contrary
to reason from motives of friendship ; he only cures a patient
and takes a fee ; whereas magistrates do many things fjom
spite and partiality. And, indeed, if a man suspected the
physician of being in league with his enemies to destroy him

8 for a bribe, he would rather have recourse to the book. Even
1287 b physicians when they are sick, call in other physicians, and

^j^ f MbO^ . tiaining-masters when they are in training, other training-

/ / masters, as if they could not judge truly about their own case

and might be influenced by their feelings. Hence it is

evident that in seeking for justice men seek for the mean or

9 neutral \ and the law is the mean. Again, customary laws
have more weight, and relate to more important matters, than
written laws, and a man may be a safer ruler than the written
law, but not safer than the customary law.

Again, it is by no means easy for one man to superintend
many things ; he will have to appoint a number of subordi-
nates ; and what difference does it make whether these sub-
ordinates always existed or were appointed by him because he
» Cp. N. Eth. V. 4. § 7.

Many better than One 141

needed them ? If, as I said before ^ the good man has III. 16
a right to mle because lie is better, then two good men are ^o
better than one: this is the old saying, —

' two going together^ ; '
and the prayer of Agamemnon, —

' would that I had ten such counsellors ' ! '
And at this day there are some magistrates, for example
judges *, who have authority to decide matters which the law
is unable to determine, since no one doubts that the law would
command and decide in the best manner whatever it could.
But some things can, and other things cannot, be com- ii
prehended under the law, and this is the origin of the vexedl
question whether the best law or the best man should rule.)
For matters of detail about which men deliberate cannot be
included in legislation. Noi- does any one deny that the
decision of such matters must be left to man, but it
is argued that there should be many judges, and not one
only. For every ruler ^ who has been trained by the law 13
judges well ; and it would surely seem strange that a person
should see better with two eyes, or hear better with two ears,
or act better with two hands or feet, than many with many ;
indeed, it is already the practice of kings to make to them-
selves many eyes and ears and hands and feet. For they
make colleagues of those who are the friends of themselves
and their governments. They must be friends of the monarch 13
and of his government ; if not his friends, they will not
do what he wants ; but friendship implies likeness and
equality; and, therefore, if he thinks that friends ought to

* Cp. c. 13. § 25. ■ II. X. 224. 2 II. ii. 372. * o liK(xarr\s.

^ Cp. for similar arguments c. 15. § q.

142 Tet there may he an Exception

III. 16 rule, he must think that those who are equal to himself and
like himself ought to rule. These are the principal con-
troversies relating to monarchy.
17 But may not all this be true in some cases and not in
others? ^for there is a natural justice and expediency in the
relation of a master to his servants, or, again, of a king to his
subjects, as also in the relation of free citizens to one another ;
whereas there is no such justice or expediency in a tyranny ^,
or in any other perverted form of government, which comes
1288 a into being contrary to nature. Now, from what has been said,

4 it is manifest that, where men are alike and equal, it is neither
expedient noT just that one man should be lord of all, whether
there are laws, or whether there are no laws, but he himself
is in the place of law. Neither should a good man be lord
over good men, or a bad man over bad ; nor, even if he excels
in virtue, should he have a right to rule, unless in a particular
case, which I have already mentioned, and to which I will

a once more recur ". But first of all, I must determine what
natures are suited for royalties, and what for an aristocracy,
and what for a constitutional government.

4 A people who are by nature capable of producing a race
superior in virtue and political talent are fitted for kingly
government ; and a people '' submitting to be ruled as free-
men by men whose virtue renders them capable of political

* Or, ' for there are men who are by nature fitted to be ruled by a
master, others to be ruled by a king, others to live under a consti-
tutional government, and for whom these several relations are just and
expedient ; but there are no men naturally fitted to be ruled by a tyrant,'
etc.

» c. 13. § 25, and § 5, infra.

^ Omitting the words 7r\fjdoi S irecpvice (pipeiv, which appear to be a
repetition from the previous clause.

The T^ile of the Best Man 143

command are adapted for an aristocracy : while the people III. 17
who are suited for constitutional freedom are those among
whom there naturally exists ^ a warlike multitude ^ able to
rule and to obey in turn by a law which gives office to the
well-to-do according to their desert. But when a whole ?
family, or some individual, happens to be so pre-eminent in ti
virtue as to surpass all others, then it is just that they
should be the royal family and supreme over all, or that this
one citizen should be king of the whole nation. For, as q
I said before ^, to give them authority is not only agreeable to
that ground of right which the founders of all states, whether
aristocratical, or oligarchical, or again democratical, are
accustomed to put forward (for these all recognize the claim
of excellence, although not the same excellence), but accords
with the principle already laid down *. For it would not 7
be right to kill, or ostracize, or exile such a person, or
require that he should take his turn in being governed. The
whole is naturally superior to the part, and he who has this
pre-eminence is in the relation of a whole to a part. But 8
if so, the only alternative is that he should have the supreme
power, and that mankind should obey him, not in turn, but
always. These are the conclusions at which we arrive respect-
ing royalty and its various forms, and this is the answer to the
question, whether it is or is not advantageous to states, and to
whom, and how.

We maintain that the true forms of government are three, 18 \^:\0f-
and that the best must be that which is administered by the
best, and in which there is one man, or a whole family,

* Omitting Kal eV. * Cp. c. 7. § 4,
» Cp. c. 9. § 15.

* Or, * but differing in the manner already laid down.'

144 ^^^ Perfect State

III. 18 or many persons, excelling in virtue, and both rulers and
subjects are fitted, the one to rule, the others to be ruled ^ in
such a manner as to attain the most eligible life. We showed
at the commencement of our enquiry ^ that the virtue of the
good man is necessarily the same as the virtue of the citizen
of the perfect state. Clearly then in the same manner, and
by the same means through which a man becomes truly good,
he will frame a state [which will be truly good] whether
1288 b aristocratical, or under kingly rule, and the same education and
the same habits will be found to make a good man and a good
statesman and king.
2 Having arrived at these conclusions, we must proceed to
speak of the perfect state, and describe how it comes into
being and is established. He who would proceed with the
enquiry in due manner. . . .'

* Omitting icai apxfif, which is inserted, without MS. authority, in
Bekker's 2nd edit.

2 Cp. c. 4. . , .

' Retaining the words of the MSS., 'AmyHrj 5?? tou /xeWovTa irepi
avTTJs iroiTjaaaOai tt^v trpoarjKovaav aisiipiv, which are omitted by
Bekker in his 2nd edit.

BOOK IV ^%4 /-S, /5-/0

In all arts and sciences which embrace the whole of IV. 1
any subject, and are not restricted to a part only, it is the
province of a single art or science to consider all that
appertains to a single subject. For example, the art of
gymnastic considers not only the suitableness of different
modes of training to different bodies (2), but what sort is
absolutely the best (1) (for the absolutely best must suit
that wliich is by nature best and best furnished with the
means of life), and also what common form of training is
adapted to the great majority of men (4). And if a man a
does not dqsire the best habit of body or the greatest skill in
gymnastics, which might be attained by him, still the trainer
or the teacher of gymnastic should be able to impart any
lower degree of either (3). The same principle equally holds
in medicine and ship-building, and the making of clothes, and
in the arts generally ^.

Hence it is obvious that government too is the subject 3
of a single science, which has to consider what kind of
government would be best and most in accordance with
our aspirations, if there were no external impediment, and
also what kind of government is adapted to particular states.
For the best is often unattainable, and therefore the true
legislator and statesman ought to be acquainted, not only
with (i) that which is best in the abstract, but also with

^ The numbers in this paragraph are made to correspond with the
numbers in the 'iext.

DAVIS £

f

1 4(5' Political Problems

IV. 1(2) that which is best relatively to circumstances. We

4 should be able further to say how a state may be constituted

under any given conditions (3); both how it is originally

formed and, when formed, how it may be longest preserved ;

the supposed state being so far from the very best that it

is unprovided even with the conditions necessary for the very

best ; neither is it the best under the circumstances, but of an

inferior type.

11 5 He ought, moreover, to know (4) the form of govern-

■ '^ ment which is best suited to states in general; for political

writers, although they have excellent ideas, are often un-

6 practical. We should consider, not only what form of
government is best, but also what is possible and what is
easily attainable by all. There are some who would have
none but the most perfect ; for this many natural advantages

1289 a are required. Others, again, speak of a more attainable form,
and, although they reject the constitution under which they
are living, they extol some one in particular, for example

7 the Lacedaemonian '. Any change of government which
has to be introduced should be one which men will be both
willing and able to adopt, since there is quite as much trouble
in the reformation of an old constitution as in the establish-

-ment of a new one, just as to unlearn is as hard as to learn.
And therefore, in addition to the qualifications of the states-
man already mentioned, lie should be able to find remedies

8 for the defects of existing constitutions -. This he cannot
I do unless he knows how many forms of government there

are. It is often supposed that there is only one kind of

[democracy and one of oligarchy. But this is a mistake ;

and, in order to avoid such mistakes, we must ascertain what

^ Cp. ii. 6. § 16. ^ Cp. § 4.

Governments True and 'Perverted 147

differences there are in the constitutions of states, and in IV. 1

how many ways they are combined. The same political 9

insight will enable a man to know which laws are the best,

and whicJT are suited to different constitutions ; for the laws

are, and ought to be, relative to the constitution, and not the

constitution to the laws. J^ constitution is the organization of !*o6f- - Oo. »t^'

{offices in a state, and determines what is to be the governing Y?

body, and what is the end of each community. But ^ laws !
are not to be confounded with the principles of the constitu-
tion ^ : they are the rules according to which the magistrates
should administer the state, and proceed against offenders.
So that we must know the number and varieties of the n
several forms of government, if only with a view to making
laws. For the same laws cannot be equally suited to all
oligarchies and to all democracies, and there is certainly more
than one form both of democracy and of oligarchy.

In our original discussion ^ about governments we divided 2
them into three true forms : kingly nile, aristocracy, and
constitutional government, and three corresponding per-
versions— tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy. Of kingly
rule and of aristocracy we have already spoken, for the
enquiiy into the perfect state is the same thing with the
discussion of the two forms thus named, since both imply
a principle of virtue provided with external means. We
have already determined in what aristocracy and kingly rule
differ from one another, and when the latter should be
established ^ In what follows we have to describe the
so-called constitutional government, which bears the common

* Or , ' laws, though in themselves distinct, show the character of
the constitution.'

* Book iii. 7 ; N. Eth. viii 10. ^ Cp. iii. 17. § 8.

L 2

148 Governments True and Perverted

IV. 2 name of all constitutions, and the other forms, tyranny,
oligarchy, and democracy.

2 It is obvious which of the three perversions is the worst,
and which is the next in badness. That which is the
perversion of the first and most divine is necessarily the

12S9 b worst. And just as a royal rule, if not a mere name, must
exist by virtue of some great personal superiority in the king,
so tyranny, which is the worst of governments, is necessarily
the farthest removed from a well-constituted form ; oligarchy
is a little better, but a long way from aristocracy, and democracy
is the most tolerable of the three.

3 A writer ' who preceded me has already made these
distinctions, but his point of view is not the same as mine.
For he lays down the principle that of all good constitutions
(under which he would include a virtuous oligarchy and the
like) democracy is the worst, but the best of bad ones.
Whereas we maintain that they are all defective, and that
one oligarchy is not to be accounted better than another, but
only less bad.

4 Not to pursue this question further at present, let us begin
by determining (i)^ how many varieties of states there
are (since of democracy and oligarchy there are several) ;
(2)^* what constitution is the most generally acceptable, and
what is eligible in the next degree * after the perfect or
any other aristocratical and well-constituted form of govern-
ment— if any other there be — which is at the same time
adapted to states in general * ; (3) ^ of the other forms of

1 Plato, Polit. 303 A., * c, 4-6. * c, 7-9 and 11.

* Or, ' after the perfect state ; and besides this what other there is
which is aristocratical and well constituted, and at the same time adapted
to states in general.' ° c. 12.

A "Table of Contents 149

government to whom each is suited. For democracy may IV. 2
meet the needs of some better than oligarchy, and conversely. 5
In the next place (4) ^ we have to consider in what manner
a man ought to proceed who desires to establish some one
among these various forms, whether of democracy or of
oligarchy ; and lastly, (5) * having briefly discussed these 6
subjects to the best of our power, we will endeavour to
ascertain whence arise the ruin and preservation of states,
both generally and in individual cases, and to what causes
they are to be attributed.

The reason why there are many forms of government j3
is that every state contains many elements. In the first
place we see that all states are made up of families, and in
the multitude of citizens there must be some rich and some
poor, and some in a middle condition ; ^ the rich are heavy-
armed, and the poor not ^. Of the common people, some a
are husbandmen, and some traders, and some artisans.
There are also among the notables differences of wealth
and^roperty — for example, in the number of horses which
they keep, for they cannot afford to keep them unless they
are rich. And therefore in old times the cities whose strength 3
lay in the cavalry were oligarchies, and they used cavaliy*
in wars against their neighbours ; as was the practice of the
Eretrians and Chalcidians, and also of the Magnesians on the
river Maeander, and of other peoples in Asia. Besides 4
differences of wealth there are differences of rank and merit,

^ Book vi. ^ Book v.

' Or, * and again both of rich and poor some are armed and some are
unarmed.'

* Reading either no\efiovs with v. tr. (Moerbek) and Bekk. 2nd edit.,
or iroXe/xiovi with the Greek MSS. ; cp. c. 13. § 10; vi. c, 7. § i.

^

I j-o why forms of Government Differ

IV. 3 and there are some other elements which were mentioned

1290 a {jy yg .^hen in treating of aristocracy we enumerated the

essentials of a state ^ Of these elements, sometimes all,

sometimes the lesser and sometimes the greater number,

5 (have a share in the government. It is evident then that

"there must be many forms of government, differing in kind,

Isince the parts of wliich they are composed differ from

each other in kind. For a constitution is an organization

K of offices which all the citizens distribute among themselves,

! according to the power which different classes possess, for

• nh example the rich or the poor, or according to some common

ec^uality subsisting among them or some power common to

6 _bgth. There must therefore be as many forms of government
as there are modes of arranging the offices, according to the
superiorities and other inequalities of the different parts of
the state.

There are generally thought to be two principal forms :
as men say of the winds that there are but two — north
and south — and that the rest of them are only variations
of these, so of governments there are said to be only two

7 forms — democracy and oligarchy. For aristocracy is con-
■sidered to be a kind of oligarchy, as being the rule of
a few, and the so-called constitutional government to be
really a democracy, just as among the winds we make the
west a variation of the north, and the east of the south
wind. Similarly of harmonies there are said to be two
kinds, the Dorian and the Phrygian ; the other arrangements
of the scale are comprehended under one of these two.

8 About forms of government this is a very favourite notion.
But in either case the better and more exact way is to

1 Not ill what has preceded, but cp. vii. 8.

CLt/f /^^

Democracy and Oliqurchy i y i

distinguish, as I have done, the one or two which are IV. 3
tiue forms, and to regard the others as perversions, whether
of the most perfectly attempered harmony or of the best form
of government ; we may compare the oligarchical forms to
the severer and more overpowering modes, and the demo-
cratic to the more relaxed and gentler ones.

. It must not be assumed, as some are fond of saying, that v^ )
democracy is simply that form of government in which
the greater number are sovereign ^, for in oligarchies, and
indeed in every government, the majority rules ; nor again
is oligarchy that form of government in which a few are
■■^sovereign. Suppose the whole population of a city to be 2
1300, and that of these 1000 are rich, and do not allow
the remaining 300 who are poor, but free, and in all other
respects their equals, a share of the government — no one
will say that this is a democracy. In like manner, if the 3
poor were few and the masters of the rich, who outnumber
them, no one would ever call such a government, in which
the rich majority have no share of office, an oligarchy.
, Therefore we should rather say that democracy is the 1290 b
/ form of government in which the free are rulers, and

oligarchy in which the rich ; it_Js^ only...,an._ja£.cident that 4
[the free are the many and the rich are the few. Otherwise
''a government in which the offices were given according to
stature, as is said to be the case in Ethiopia, or according to
beauty, would be an oligarchy ; for the number of tall or good-
looking men is small. And yet oligarchy and democracy 5
are not sufficiently distinguished merely by these two charac-
teristics of wealth and freedom. Both of them contain
many other elements, and therefore we must carry our
1 Cp. iii. 8. §§ 3-7.

i;2 The State Compared to the Animal

IV. 4 analysis further, and say that the government is not a de-
mocracy in which the freemen, being few in number, rule
over the many who art not free, as at Apol Ionia, on the
Ionian Gulf, and at Thera (for in each of these states
the nobles, who were also the earliest settlers, were held in
chief honour, although they were but a few out of many).
Neither is it a democracy when the rich have the government,
because they exceed in number ; as was the case formerly at
Colophon, where the bulk of the inhabitants were possessed
6 of large property before the Lydian War. But the form
^ tof government is a democracy when the free, who are also

<]g-A;Ut^<to - - Ipoor and the majority, govern, and oligarchy when the
!lte hfi/^, i^i^-x [rich and the noble govern, they being at the same time few
(in number.
f-^ I have said that there are many forms of government, and
-;— ^ have explained to what causes the variety is due. Why

*-(^f^ there are more than those already mentioned, and what they

ftuK>fr^^ are, and whence they arise, I will now proceed to consider,

starting from the principle already admitted \ which is that
8 every state consists, not of one, but of many parts. If we
were going to speak of the different species of animals, we
should first of all determine the organs which are indispens-
able to every animal, as for example some organs of sense
and instruments of receiving and digesting food, such as the
mouth and the stomach, besides organs of locomotion. As-
suming now that there are only so many kinds of organs, but
that there may be differences in them — I mean different kinds
of mouths, and stomachs, and perceptive and locomotive
organs — the possible combinations of these differences will
necessarily furnish many varieties of animals. (For animals
' Cp. c. 3. § I.

Essential Elements of the State 15-3

cannot be the same which have different kinds of mouths or IV. 4
of ears.) And when all the combinations are exhausted,
there will be as many sorts of animals as there are combina-
tions of the necessary oigans. In like manner the forms of 9
government which have been described, as I have repeatedly
said, are composed, not of one, but of many elements. C[^ne , .u^., ...i-^t «tAt
element_is the food-producing class, who are called husband- «,

men; a second, a class of mechanics, who practise the arts r291a
without which a city cannot exist ; — of these arts some are
absolutely necessary, otliers contribute to luxury or to the ^ U .
grace of life. The third class is that of traders, and by traders i^ '
I mean those who are engaged in buying and selling, whether
in commerce or in retail trade. _A fourth class is that of the
serfs or labourers. The warriors make up the fifth class, and
they are as necessary as any of the others, if the country is not
to be the slave of every invader. For how can a state which n
has any title to the name be of a slavish nature ? The state is
independent and self-sufficing, but a slave is the reverse of inde-
pendent. Hence we see that this subject, though ingeniously,
has not been satisfactorily treated in the Republic ^. Socrates 12
says that a state is made up of four sorts of people who are
absolutely necessary; these are a weaver, a husbandman,
a shoemaker, and a builder ; afterwards, finding that they
are not enough, he adds a smith, and again a herdsman, to
look after the necessary animals ; then a merchant, and then
a retaiHrader. All these together form the complement of the ' 3
firsf state, as if a state were established merely to supply the
necessaries of life, rather than for the sake of the good, or
stood equally in need of shoemakers and of husbandmen.
But he does not admit into the state a military class until the
* Rep. ii. 369.

15-4 Essential Elements of the State

IV. 4 country has increased in size, and is beginning to encroach on

its neighbour's land, whereupon they go to war. Yet even

amongst his four original citizens, or whatever be the number

of those whom he associates in the state, there must be some

vone who will dispense justice and determine what is just.

14 And as the soul may be said to be more truly part of an
animal than the body, so the higher parts of states, that is to
say, the warrior class, the class engaged in the administration
of justice, and in deliberation, which is the special business
of political common sense, — these are more essential to the
state than the parts which minister to the necessaries of life.

15 Whether their several functions are the functions of different
citizens, or of the same — for it may often happen that the
same persons are both warriors and husbandmen — is imma-
terial to the argument. The higher as well as the lower
elements are to be equally considered parts of the state, and
if so, the military element must be included. There are also

\the wealthy who minister to the state with their property;

leVhese form the seventh class. The eighth class is that of

magistrates and of officers ; for the state cannot exist without

rulers. And therefore some must be able to take office and to

17 serve the state, either always or in turn. There only remains
the class of those who deliberate and who judge between dis-
putants ; we were just now distinguishing them. If the fair
and equitable organization of all these elements is necessary to

1291 b states, then there must also be persons who have the ability of

18 statesmen. ' Many are of opinion that different functions can
be combined in the same individual ^ ; for example, the war-
rior may be a husbandman, or an artisan ; or again, the coun-
sellor a judge. And all claim to possess political ability, and

1 Or, ' Different functions appear to be often combined,' etc.

Varieties of Democracy lyf

think that they are quite competent to fill most offices. But IV. 4.
the same persons cannot be rich and poor at the same time. '
For this reason the rich and the poor are regarded in an 19
especial sense as parts of a state. Again, because the rich
are generally few in number, while the poor are many, they
appear to be antagonistic, and as the one or the other prevails
they form the government. Hence arises the common
opinion that there are two kinds of government — democracy
and oligarchy.

I have already explained -^ that there are many differences 20
of constitutions, and to what causes the variety is due. Let
me now show that there are different forms both of democracy
and oligarchy, as will indeed be evident from what has pre-
ceded. For both in the common people and in the notables 21
various classes are included ; of the common people, one class
are husbandmen, another artisans ; another traders, who are
employed in buying and selling ; another are the seafaring
class, whether engaged in war or in trade, as ferrymen or as
fishermen. (In many places any one of these classes forms
quite a large population ; for example, fishermen at Tarentum
and Byzantium, crews of triremes at Athens, merchant sea-
men at Aegina and Chios, ferrymen at Tenedos.) To the
classes already mentioned may be added day-labourers, and
those who, owing to their needy circumstances, have no
leisure, or those who are not free of birth on both sides ; and
there may be other classes as well. The notables again may 22
be divided according to their wealth, biith, virtue, education,
and similar differences.

Of forms of democracy first comes that which is said to^ 1
JDC based strictly on equality. In such a democracy the law^ ***
^ Cp. iii. c. 6.

^>

\^6 Extreme Democracy

IV. 4|says that it is just for nobody to be poor, and for nobody to
I be rich ^ ; and that neither should be masters, but both equal.

23 For if Hberty and equality, as is thought by some, are chiefly
to be found in democracy, they will be best attained when all
persons alike share in the government to the utmost. And
since the people are the majority, and the opinion of the
majority is decisive, such a government must necessarily be

24 a democracy. Here then is one sort of democracy. There
: is another in which the magistrates are elected according to
I a certain property qualification, but a low one ; he who has
!the required amount of propeity has a share in the govern-

1292 )i ment, but he who loses his propeity loses his rights. Another
kind is that in which all the citizens who are under no dis-
qualification share in the government, but still the law is

25 supreme. In another, everybody, if he be only a citizen, is
admitted to the government, but the law is supreme as before.
A fifth form of democracy, in other respects the same, is that
in which, not the law, but the multitude, have the supreme

26 power, and supersede the law by their decrees. This is
a state of affairs brought about by the demagogues. For in
democracies which are subject to the law the best citizens
hold the first place, and there are no demagogues ; but where
the laws are not supreme, there demagogues spring up. For
the people becomes a monarch, and is many in one ; and the
many have the power in their hands, not as individuals, but

27 collectively. Homer says that, 'it is not good to have a rule

^ Or, reading apxeiv with Victorius, * that the poor should no more
govern than the rich.' The emenda'ion is not absolutely necessary,
though supported by vi. 2. § 9, taov yap to jxtjOiv fidWov apxnv tovs
dnopovs fj Tovs evirupovs l^rjol Kvpiovs elvai fiovovs aWa ndyras i^ laov
icar apiQixov.

Extreme Democracy if 7

of many' *, but whether he means this corporate rule, or the IV. 4
rule of many individuals, is uncertain. And the people, who '
is now a monarch, and no longer under the control of law,
seeks to exercise monarchical sway, and grows into a despot ;
the flatterer is held in honour ; this sort of democracy being
relatively to other democracies what tyranny is to other forms
of monarchy. The spirit of both is the same, and they alike '^8
exercise a despotic mle over the better citizens. The decrees
of the demos correspond to the edicts of the tyrant ; and the
demagogue is to the one what tlie flatterer is to the other.
Both have great power — the flatterer with the tyrant, the
demagogue with democracies of the kind which we are i
describing. The demagogues make the decrees of the people 29
override the laws, and refer all things to the popular assembly.
And therefore they grow great, because the people have all
things in their hands, and they hold in their hands the votes
of the people, who are too ready to listen to them. Further, 30
those who have any complaint to bring against the magis-
trates say, ' let the people be judges ' ; the people are too
happy to accept the invitation ; and so the authority of every
office is undermined. Such a democracy is fairly open to the J
objection that it is not a constitution at all ; for where thel
laws have no authority, there is no constitution. The law pi
ought to be supreme over all, and the magistracies and the
government should judge only of particulars. So that if
democracy be a real form of government, the sort of constitu-
tion in which all things are regulated by decrees is clearly not
a democracy in the true sense of the word, for decrees relate
only to particulars ^

' II. ii. 204. 9 Cp. N. Eih. V. 10. § 7.

1 5" 8 Varieties of Oligarchy

IV. (5) These then are the different kinds of democracies. Of
oligarchies, too, there are different kinds — one where the
, property qualification for ofKce is so high that the poor,
although they form the majority, have no share in the govern-
ment, yet he who acquires a qualification may obtain a share.

1292 b Another sort is when there is a qualification for ofhce, but
a high one, and the vacancies in the governing body are filled
by co-optation. If the election is made out of all the qualified
persons, a constitution of this kind inclines to an aristocracy,

2 if out of a privileged class, to an oligarchy. Another sort of
oligarchy is when the son succeeds the father. There is
a fourth form, likewise hereditary, in which the magistrates
are supreme and not the law. Among oligarchies this is

' what tyranny is among monarchies, and the last-mentioned

form of democracy among democracies ; and in fact this
sort of oligarchy receives the name of a dynasty (or rule of
powerful families).

3 These are the different sorts of oligarchies and democra-
cies. It should however be remembered that in many states ^
the constitution which is established by law, although not
democratic, owing to the character and habits of the people,
may be administered democratically, and conversely in other
states the established constitution may incline to democracy,

4 but may be administered in an oligarchical spirit. This most
often happens after a revolution : for governments do not
change at once ; at first the dominant party are content with
encroaching a little upon their opponents. The laws which
existed previously continue in force, but the authors of the
revolution have the power in their hands.

Q From what has been already said we may safely infer that
Cp. V. I. § 8.

Stages of Democracy i yp

there are so many different kinds of democracies and of IV. 6
oligarchies. For it is evident that either all the classes whom '^

we mentioned must share in the government, or some only and
not others. When the class of husbandmen and of those a i

who possess moderate fortunes have the supreme power, the
government is administered according to law. For the citi-
zens being compelled to live by their labour have no leisure ;
and so they set up the authority of the law, and attend
assemblies only when necessary. Since they all obtain a 3
shaie in the government when they have acquired the quali-
fication which is fixed by the law, nobody is excluded — the
absolute exclusion of any class would be a step towards
oligarchy. But leisure cannot be provided for them unless
there are revenues to support them. This is one sort of
democracy, and these are the causes which give birth to it.
Another kind is based on the mode of election, ^ which
naturally comes next in order ^ ; in this, every one to whose
birth there is no objection is eligible, and may share in the
government if he can find leisure. And in such a democracy 4
the supreme power is vested in the laws, because the state has
no means of paying the citizens. K. third kind is when all 3 ,

freemen have a right to share in the government, but do not
actually share, for the reason which has been already given ; -_

so that in this form again the law must rule. A fourth kind 5 >; ^Jr //jf.t^, i
of democracy is that which comes latest in the history of 1293 a /^ /jf g .
states. In our own day, when cities have far outgrown their
original size, and their revenues have increased, all the citizens
have a place in the government, through the great prepon-
derance of their numbers ; and they all, including the poor
who receive pay, and therefore have leisure to exercise their
^ Or, ' which is proper to it.'

I (S'o Stages of Oligarchy

IV. 6 liglits, share in the administration. Indeed, when they are

6 paid, the common people have the most leisure, for they are
not hindered by the care of their property, which often fetters
the rich, who are thereby prevented from taking part in the
assembly or in the courts, and so the state is governed by the

7 poor, who are a majority, and not by the laws. So many
kinds of democracies there are, and they grow out of these
necessary causes.

Of oligarchies, one form is that in which the majority of
the citizens have some property, but not very much ; and this
is the first form, which allows to any one who obtains the

8 required amount the right of sharing in the goveinment. The
sharers in the government being a numerous body, it follows

^ I that the law must govern, and not individuals. For in pro-

portion as they are further removed from a monarchical form
of government, and in respect of property have neither so
much as to be able to live without attending to business, nor so
little as to need state support, they must admit the rule of law

9 and not claim to rule themselves. But if the men of property
•^ ' in the state are fewer than in the former case, and own more

property, there arises a second form of oligarchy. For the
stronger they are, the more power they claim, and having this
object in view, they themselves select those of the other
classes who are to be admitted to the government ; but, not
] being as yet strong enough to rule without the law, they make

lolthe law represent their wishes. When this power is inten-
sified by a further diminution of their numbers and increase
of their property, there arises a third and further stage of
yj > oligarchy, in which the governing class keep the offices in

their own hands, and the law ordains that the son shall

II succeed the father. When, again, the rulers have great

Aristocracy i the Pure and the Mixed 16 1

wealth and numerous friends, this sort of dynastia or family IV. 6
despotism approaches a monarchy; individuals rule and not "",

the law. This is the fourth sort of oligarchy, and is analogous
to the last sort of democracy.

There are still two forms besides democracy and oligarchy; 1 Cf- Bli ^. ^^-o
one of them is universally recognized and included among the ' rv-' 7'
four principal forms of government, which are said to be
(i) monarchy, (2) oligarchy, (3) democracy, and (4) the so-
called aristocracy or government of the best. But there is also
a fifth, which retains the generic name of polity or constitu-
tional government ; this is not common, and therefore has not
been noticed by writers who attempt to enumerate the dif-
ferent kinds of government ; like Plato in his books about the 1293 b
state, they recognize four only. The term 'aristocracy' 2 Cj:'^-
is rightly applied to the form of government which is de-
scribed in the first part of our treatise : for that only can
be rightly called aristocracy [the government of the best]
which is a government formed of the best men absolutely,
and not merely of men who are good when tried by any given
standard. In the perfect state the good man is absolutely the ^
same as the good citizen ; whereas in other states the good I
citizen is only good relatively to his own form of govern- I
ment. But there are some states differing from oligarchies 3
and also differing from the so-called polity or constitu-
tional government ; these are termed aristocracies, and in
them magistrates are certainly chosen, both according to their
wealth and according to their merit. Such a form of govern-
ment is not the same with the two just now mentioned, and
is termed an aristocracy. For indeed in states which do not 4 /OfH
make virtue the aim of the community, men of merit and
reputation for virtue may be found. And so where a govern-

DAVIS M

i62 Mixed Co?istitutions

IV. 7 ment has regard to wealth, virtue, and numbers, as at Car-
thage •'j that is aristocracy ; and also where it has regard only
to two out of the three, as at Lacedaemon, to virtue and
numbers, and the two principles of democracy and virtue

5 temper each other. There are these two forms of aristocracy
in addition to the first and perfect state, and there is a third
form, viz. the polities which incline towards oligarchy.

8 I have yet to speak of the so-callednolity and of tyranny.
I put them in this order, not because a polity or constitutional
government is to be regarded as a perversion any more than the
above-mentioned aristocracies. The truth is, that they all
fall short of the most perfect form of government, and so
they are reckoned among perversions, and other forms {sc.
the really perverted forms) are perversions of these, as I

2 said before *. Last of all I will speak of tyranny, which
I place last in the series because I am enquiring into the
constitutions of states, and this is the very reverse of
a constitution.

Having explained why I have adopted this order, I will
proceed to consider constitutional government ; of which the
nature will be clearer now that oligarchy and democracy

Z have been defined. For polity or constitutional government

f may be described generally as a fusion of oligarchy and

I democracy ; but the term is usually applied to those forms
of government which incline towards democracy, and the
term aristocracy to those which incline towards oligarchy,
because birth and education are commonly the accompani-

4 ments of wealth. Moreover, the rich already possess the
external advantages the want of which is a temptation to
crime, and hence they are called noblemen and gentlemen.
> Cp. ii, II. §§ 6-IO, * Cp. iii. 7.

Mixed Constitutions 167^

And inasmuch as aiistocracy seeks to give predominance to IV. 8
the best of the citizens, people say also of oligarchies
that they are composed of noblemen and gentlemen. No\vl2D4a
it appears to be an impossible thing that the state which 5
is governed by the best citizens should be ill-governed ^, 'and
equally impossible that the state which is ill-governed should
be governed by the best. But we must remember that good
laws, if they are not obeyed, do not constitute good govern- ■/
ment. For there are two parts of good government ; one 6
is the actual obedience of citizens to the laws, the other I
£art is the goodness of the laws which they obey ; they 1
may obey bad laws as well as good. And there may be
a fuither subdivision ; they may obey either the best laws
which are attainable to them, or the best absolutely.

The distribution of offices according to merit is a special."
characteristic of aristocracy, for the principle of an aristocracy!
is virtue, as wealth is of an oligarchy, and freedom of a
democracy. In all of them there of course exists the right
of the majority, and whatever seems good to the majority of
those who share in the government has authority. Generally, s
however, a state of this kind is called a constitutional govern-
ment [not an aristocracy], for the fusion goes no further
than the attempt to unite the freedom of the poor and the >c
wealth of the rich, who commonly take the place of the
noble. And as there are three grounds on which men claim 9
an equal share in the government— freedom, wealth, and virtue
(for the fourth or good birth is the result of the two last,
K being only ancient wealth and virtue) — it is clear that the
admixture of the two elements, that is to say, of the richi
and poor, is to be called a polity or constitutional government ;

^ Omitting dAAa irovrjpoKpaToviJLivrjv.
M 2

I (5^4 Aristocracy and Polity

IV. 8 and the union of the three is to be called aristocracy or
the government of the best, and more than any other form of
government, except the true and ideal, has a right to this
name.
lo Thus far I have described the different forms of states
which exist besides monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy,
and what they are, and in what aristocracies differ from
one another, and polities from aristocracies — that the two
latter are not very unlike is obvious.
9 Next we have to consider how by the side of oligarchy
and democracy the so-called polity or constitutional govern-
ment springs up, and how it should be organized. The
nature of it will be at once understood from a comparison of
oligarchy and democracy ; we must ascertain their different
characteristics, and taking a portion from each, put the two

2 together, like the parts of an indenture. Now there are three
modes in which fusions of government may be effected. The
nature of the fusion will be made intelligible by an example of
the manner in which different governments legislate, say con-
cerning the administration of justice. In oligarchies they
impose a fine on the rich if they do not serve as judges, and
to the poor they give no pay ; but in democracies they give

3 pay to the poor and do not fine the rich. Now {j^ tiie union
of these two modes ^ is a common or middle term between

1294 b them, and is therefore characteristic of a constitutional
government, for it is a combination of both. This is one
mode of uniting the two elements. Or {2,\ a mean may be
taken between the enactments of the two : thus democracies
require no property qualification, or only a small one, from
members of the assembly, oligarchies a high one; here
1 Cp. c. 13. § 6.

Polity

16^

neither of these is the common term, but a mean between them. IV. 9
(3) There is a third mode, in which something is borrowed 4
from the oHgarchical and something from the democratical
principle. For example, the appointment of magistrates by^
jot is democratical, and the election of them oligarchical ;|
democratical again when there is no property qualification,
oligarchical when there is. In the aristocratical or constitu-,5
tional state, one element will be taken from each — from oli-f
garchy the mode of electing to offices, from democracy thej
^sregard of qualification. Such are the various modes of 6
combination.

There is a true union of oligarchy and democracy when the
same state may be termed either a democracy or an oligarchy ;
those who use both names evidently feel that the fusion
is complete. Such a fusion there is also in the mean ; for
both extremes appear in it. The Lacedaemonian constitution, 7 ■* kf't^° jf- ^
for example, is often described as a democracy, because it has
many democratical features. In the first place the youth .'- /
receive a democratical education. For the sons of the poor
are brought up with the sons of the rich, who are educated
in such a manner as to make it possible for the sons of the
poor to be educated like them. A similar equality prevails 8 t< >•

in the following period of life, and when the citizens are
grown up to manhood the same rule is observed ; there is
no distinction between the rich and poor. In like manner ^

they all have the same food at their public tables, and
the rich wear only such clothing as any poor man can
aiford. Again, the people elect to one of the two greatest 9 (N . a , //■/
offices of states, and in the other they share ^ ; for they elect ** u

'the Senators and share in the Ephoralty. By others the
^ Cp. ii. 9. § 21.

1 66 Tyranny

IV. 9 Spartan constitution is said to be an oligarchy, because it
has many oligarchical elements. That all offices are filled
|. by election and none by lot, is one of these oligarchical

characteristics ; that the power of inflicting death or banish-
2, , ment rests with a few persons is another ; and there are
lo others. In a well attempered polity there should appear to
be both elements and yet neither ; also the government should
rely on itself, and not on foreign aid, nor on the good will of
a majority of foreign states — they might be equally well-
disposed when there is a vicious form of government — but on
the general willingness of all classes in the state to maintain
the constitution.

Enough of the manner in which a constitutional government,

and in which the so-called aristocracies ought to be framed.

10 Of the nature of tyranny I have still to speak, in order

that It may have its place m our enquiry, since even tyranny is

pdM^ CiiJil reckoned by us to be a form of government, although there is

l^'h) o6~^ not much to be said about it. I have already in the former

part of this treatise ^ discussed royalty or kingship according

to the most usual meaning of the term, and considered

whether it is or is not advantageous to states, and what kind

of royalty should be established, and whence, and how it

arises.

2 When speaking of royalty we also spoke of two forms
of tyranny, which are both according to law, and therefore
easily pass into royalty. Among Barbarians there are elected

^ monarchs who exercise a despotic power; despotic rulers
were also elected in ancient Hellas, called Aesymnetes or

3 dictators. These monarchies, when compared with one
another, exhibit certain differences. And they are, as I

* iii. 14-17.

Polity 167

said before, royal, in so far as the monarch rules accord- IV. 10
ing to law and over willing subjects ; but they are tyrannical
in so far as he is despotic and rules according to his own
fancy. There is also a third kind of tyranny, which is the
most typical form, and is the counterpart of the perfect
monarchy. This tyranny is just that arbitrary power of an 4
individual which is responsible to no one, and governs all '
alike, whether equals or betters, with a view to its own
advantage, not to that of its subjects, and therefore against
their will. No freeman, if he can escape from it, will endure
such a government.

The kinds of tyranny are such and so many, and for the
reasons which I have given.

We have now to enquire what is the best constitution 11
for most states, and the best life for most men, neither I
assuming a standard of virtue which is above ordinary persons,
nor an education which is exceptionally favoured by nature
and circumstances, nor yet an ideal state which is an aspiration
only, but having regard to the life in which the majority
are able to share, and to the form of government which states
in general can attain. As to those aristocracies, as they are 2
called, of which we were just now speaking, they either
lie beyond the possibilities of the greater number of states,^
or they approximate to the so-called constitutional govern-
ment, and therefore need no separate discussion. And in
fact the conclusion at which we arrive respecting all these
forms rests upon the same grounds. For if it has been truly 3
said in the Ethics ^ that the happy life is the life according
to unimpeded virtue, and that virtue is a mean, then the
life which is in a mean, and in a mean attainable by every
1 N. Eth. vii. 13. § 2.

1(58 The T{ule of the Isliddle Class

IV. 11 one, must be the best. And the same criteria of virtue
1295 b and vice apply both to cities and to constitutions ; for the
constitution is in a figure the life of the city ^.

4 Now in all states there are three elements ; one class is
very rich, another very poor, and a third in a mean. It
is admitted that moderation and the mean are best, and there-
fore it will clearly be best to possess the gifts of fortune
in moderation ; for in that condition of life men are most

5 ready to listen to reason. But he who greatly excels in
beauty, strength, birth or wealth, or on the other hand who
is very poor, or very weak, or very much disgraced, finds it

, difficult to follow reason ^. Of these two the one sort grow
into violent and great criminals, the others into rogues and
petty rascals. And two sorts of offences correspond to them',
the one committed from violence, the other from roguery.
The petty rogues are disinclined to hold office, whether
military or civil, and their aversion to these two duties is
•^ as great an injury to the state as their tendency to crime.

6 Again, those who have too much of the goods of fortune,
1 strength, wealth, friends, and the like, are neither willing
[nor able to submit to authority. The evil begins at home:

for when they are boys, by reason of the luxury in which
they are brought up *, they never learn, even at school, the
habit of obedience. On the other hand, the very poor, who

7 are in the opposite extreme, are too degraded. So that the
one class cannot obey, and can only rule despotically ; the
other knows not how to command and must be mled like
slaves. Thus arises a city, not of freemen, but of masters
and slaves, the one despising, the other envying ; and nothing

1 Cp. iii. 3. §§ 7, 8. = Cp. PI. Rep. iv. 421 c, D ff.

^ Laws, viii 831 E. * Cp. v. 9. § 13.

The T^ile of the Middle Class 1^9

can be more fatal to friendship and good fellowship in states IV. 11
than this : for good fellowship tends to friendship ; when men
are at enmity with one another, they would rather not even
share the same path. But a city ought to be composed, as far 8
as possible, of equals and similars ; and these are generally the
middle classes. Wherefore the city which is composed I
of middle-class citizens is necessarily best governed ; they I
are, as we say, the natural elements of a state. And this is
the class of citizens which is most secure in a state, for they
do not, like the poor, covet their neighbours' goods ; nor do 9
others covet theirs, as the poor covet the goods of the rich ;
and as they neither plot against others, nor are themselves
plotted against, they pass through life safely. Wisely then
did Phocylides pray —

' Many things are best in the mean ; I desire to be of
a middle condition in my city.'

Thus it is manifest that the best political community is lo
formed by citizens of the middle class, and that those states
are likely to be well-administered, in which the middle class \
is large, and larger if possible than both the other classes,
or at any rate than either singly ; for the addition of the
middle class turns the scale, and prevents either of the
extremes from being dominant. Great then is the good ii
fortune of a state in which the citizens have a moderate and
sufficient property ; for where some possess much, and the 1296 a
others nothing, there may arise an extreme democracy, or
a pure oligarchy ; or a tyranny may grow out of either
extreme — either out of the most rampant democracy, or out
of an oligarchy ; but it is not so likely to arise out of a middle
and nearly equal condition. I will explain the reason of this 13

17 o The Middle Class is rarely Supreme

IV. 11 hereafter, when I speak of the revolutions of states ■'. The
mean condition of states is clearly best, for no other is free
■from faction; and where the middle class is large, there

13 are least likely to be factions and dissensions. For a similar
reason large states are less liable to faction than small ones,
because in them the middle class is large ; whereas in small
states it is easy to divide all the citizens into two classes who
are either rich or poor, and to leave nothing in the middle.

14 And democracies are safer ^ and more permanent than
oligarchies, because they have a middle class which is more
numerous and has a greater share in the government ; for
when there is no middle class, and the poor greatly exceed
in number, troubles arise, and the state soon comes to an

15 end. A proof of the superiority of the middle class
is that the best legislators have been of a middle condi-
tion ; for example, Solon, as his own verses testify ; and
Lycurgus, for he was not a king ; and Charondas, and almost
all legislators.

16 These considerations will help us to understand why most
governments are either democratical or oligarchical. The
reason is that the middle class is seldom numerous in them,

tI and whichever party, whether the rich or the common people,
transgresses the mean and predominates, draws the govern-
ment to itself, and thus arises either oligarchy or democracy.

17 There is another reason — the poor and the rich quarrel with
one another, and whichever side gets the better, instead of
establishing a just or popular government, regards political
supremacy as the prize of victory, and the one party sets up

18 a democracy and the other an oligarchy. Both the parties
which had the supremacy in Hellas looked only to the

1 Cp. Bk. y. » Cp. V. I. § 15 ; 7. § 6.

The Goodwill of the Stronger 171

interest of their own form of government, and established in IV. 11
j states, the one, democracies, and the other, oligarchies ; they
'thought of their own advantage, of the public not at all. For 19
these reasons the middle form of government has rarely, if
ever, existed, and among a very few only. One man alone of
all who ever ruled in Hellas was induced to give this middle
constitution to states. But it has now become a habit among 1296 b
the citizens of states, not even to care about equality ; all men
are seeking for dominion, or, if conquered, are willing to
submit.

What then is the best form of government, and what makes 20
it the best, is evident ; and of other states, since we say that
there are many kinds of democracy and many of oligarchy, it
is not difficult to see which has the first and which the second
or any other place in the order of excellence, now that
we have determined which is the best. For that which 21
is nearest to the best must of necessity be better, and
that which is furthest from it worse, if we are judging
absolutely and not relatively to given conditions : I say
' relatively to given conditions,' since a particular government
may be preferable for some, but another form may be better
for others.

We have now to consider what and what kind of govern- 12
ment is suitable to what and what kind of men. I may begin
by assuming, as a general principle common to all govern-
ments, that the portion of the state which desires permanence
ought to be stronger than that which desires the reverse.
Now every city is composed of quality and quantity. By"^
quality I mean fieedom, wealth, education, good birth, and by 1
quantity, superiority of numbers. Quality may exist in one of>2
the classes which make up the state, and quantity in the

172 The Goodwill of the Stronger

IV. 12 other. For example, the meanly-born may be more in
number than the well-born, or the poor than the rich, yet
they may not so much exceed in quantity as they fall short in

3 quality ; and therefore there must be a comparison of quantity
and quality. Where the number of the poor is more than

j proportioned to the wealth of the rich, there will naturally be
' a democracy, varying in form with the sort of people who
compose it in each case. If, for example, the husbandmen
exceed in number, the first form of democracy will then
arise ; if the artisans and labouring class, the last ; and so with
the intermediate forms. But wh'ere the rich and the notables
exceed in quality more than they fall short in quantity, there
^oligarchy arises, similarly assuming various forms according
to the kind of superiority possessed by the oligarchs.

4 The legislator should always include the middle class in
his government; if he makes his laws oligarchical, to the
middle class let him look; if he makes them democratical,
he should equally by his laws try ^ to attach this class to

^ the state ^. There only can the government ever be stable
1297 4 where the middle class exceeds one or both of the others, and

i in that case there will be no fear that the rich will unite with
' the poor against the mlers. For neither of them will ever be
willing to serve the other, and if they look for some form of
government more suitable to both, they will find nope better
than this, for the rich and the poor will never consent to rule
in turn, because they mistrust one another. The arbiter is
always the one ti'usted, and he who is in the middle is an

6 arbiter. The more perfect the admixture of the political
elements, the more lasting will be the state. Many even of

* Or, if TTpoaa-yiaOai can govern tois vo/xoiS, ' to win this class over
to his laws.' .^

The Policy of Oligarchies 173

those who desire to form aristocratical governments make IV. 12
a mistake, not only in giving too much power to the rich, but
in attempting to overreach the people. There comes a time
when out of a false good there arises a true evil, since the
encroachments of the rich are more destructive to the state
than those of the people.

The devices by which oligarchies deceive the people are 13
^jj^ in number; they relate to (l) the assembly; (2) the
magistracies; (3) the courts of law ; (4) the use of arms ;
(5) gymnastic exercises. (l) The assemblies are thrown
open to all, but either the rich only are fined for non-
attendance, or a much larger fine is inflicted upon them.

(2) As to the magistracies, those who are qualified by 3
property cannot decline office upon oath, but the poor may. '

(3) In the law-courts the rich, and the rich only, are fined
if they do not serve, the poor are let off with impunity, or,
as in the laws of Charondas, a large fine is inflicted on the \.,
rich, and a smaller one on the poor. In some states all ^
citizens who have registered themselves are allowed to attend
the assembly and to try causes ; but if after registration they
do not attend in the assembly or at the courts, heavy fines are
imposed upon them. The intention is that through fear
of the fines they may avoid registering themselves, and then
they cannot sit in the law-courts or in the assembly.

(4) Concerning the possession of arms, and (5) gymnastic 4
exercises, they legislate in a similar spirit. For the poor are
not obliged to have arms, but the rich are fined for not having
them ; and in like manner no penalty is inflicted on the poor .
for non-attendance at the gymnasium, and consequently,
having nothing to fear, they do not attend, whereas the rich ,
are liable to a fine, and therefore they take care to attend.

\,

174 Military Basis of the Constitution

IV. 13 These are the devices of oligarchical legislators, and
5 in democracies they have counter devices. They pay the poor
for attending the assemblies and the law-courts, and they
\6 inflict no penalty on the rich for non-attendance. It is
obvious that he who would duly mix the two principles should
combine the practice of both, and provide that the poor
should be paid to attend, and the rich fined if they do not
attend, for then all will take part ; if there is no such combina-
1297 b tion, power will be in the hands of one party only. The
? government should be confined to those who carry arms. As
to the property qualification, no absolute rule can be laid
down, but we must see what is the highest qualification
sufficiently comprehensive to secure that the number of those
who have the rights of citizens exceeds the number of those

8 excluded. Even if they have no share in office, the poor,
provided only that they are not outraged or deprived of their
property, will be quiet enough.

But to secure gentle treatment for the poor is not an easy

9 thing, since a ruling class is not always humane. And in time
of war the poor are apt to hesitate unless they are fed ; when

>. fed, they are willing enough to fight. In some states the

government is vested, not only in those who are actually

serving, but also in those who have served ; among the

Malians, for example, the governing body consisted of the

latter, while the magistrates were chosen from those actually

10 on service. And the earliest government which existed among

1 'J9 f f^ the Hellenes, after the overthrow of the kingly power, grew

up out of the warrior class, and was originally taken from the

knights (for strength and superiority in war at that time

depended on cavalry ^) ; indeed, without discipline, infantry

' Cp. iv. 3. § 3; vi. 7. § I.

The Distribution of Political Power 17 f

are useless, and In ancient times there was no military know- IV. 13
ledge or tactics, and therefore the strength of armies lay
in their cavalry. But when cities increased and the heavy
armed grew in strength, more had a share in the government j
and this is the reason why the states, which we call con- n
stitutional governments, have been hitherto called democracies. !
Ancient constitutions, as might be expected, were oligarchical
and royal ; their population being small they had no consider-
able middle class ; the people were weak in numbers and
organization, and were therefore more contented to be
governed.

I have explained why there are various forms of govern- 12
ment, and why there are more than is generally supposed ;
for democracy, as well as other constitutions, has more than
one form : also what their differences are, and whence they
arise, and what is the best form of government, speaking
generally, and to wliom the various forms of government
are best suited; all this has now been explained.

Having thus gained an appropriate basis of discussion we 14
will proceed to speak of the points which follow next in
order. We will consider the subject not only in general but
with reference to particular states. All states have three
elements, and the good law-giver has to regard what is
expedient for each state. When they are well-ordered, the
state is well-ordered, and as they differ from one another,
constitutions differ. What is the element first (i) which 2
deliberates about public affairs; secondly (2) which is con- 1298a
cerned with the magistrates and determines what they should
be, over whom they should exercise authority, and what
should be the mode of electing them; and thirdly (^ which 3
has judicial power ?

i7<^ Forms of the Deliberative Power

IV. 1^ The deliberative element has authority in matters of war

land peace, in making and unmaking alliances ; it passes laws,

(inflicts death, exile, confiscation, audits the accounts of

fmagistrates. All these powers must be assigned either to all

Hhe citizens or to some of them, for example, to one or more

magistracies ; or different causes to different magistracies, or

4 some of them to all, and others of them only to some. That

all things should be decided by all is characteristic of

democracy ; this is the sort of equality which the people

desire. But there are various ways in which all may share

in the government ; they may deliberate, not all in one body,

but by turns, as in the constitution of Telecles the Milesian.

f- There, are other states in which the boards of magistrates

meet and deliberate, but come into office by turns, and are

elected out of the tribes and the very smallest divisions of

the state, until every one has obtained ofhce in his turn.

The citizens, on the other hand, are assembled only for

I the purposes of legislation, and to consult about the con-
j, stitution, and to hear the edicts of the magistrates. In
another variety of democracy the citizens form one assembly,
but meet only to elect magistrates, to pass laws, to advise
■J^about war and peace, and to make scrutinies. Other matters
are referred severally to special magistrates, who are elected
2 6 bv vote or by lot out of all the citizens. Or arain, the

citizens meet about election to ofhces and about scrutinies, and
deliberate concerning war or alliances, while other matters are
administered by the magistrates, who, as far as is possible, are
elected by vote ^ I am speaking of those magistracies in
A. 7 which special knowledge is required. A fourth form of
democracy is when all the citizens meet to deliberate about
» Cp. vi. 2. § 5.

In Democracies and Olifrarchies 177

everything, and the magistrates decide nothing, but only make IV. 14
the preliminary enquiries ; and that is the way in which the i
last and worst form of democracy, corresponding, as we
maintain, to the close family oligarchy and to tyranny, is
at present administered. All these modes are democratical.

On the other hand, that some should deliberate about all is ^
oliigarchical. This again is a mode which, like the demo- 8
cratical, has many forms. When the deliberative class, be'ng ' i

elected out of those who have a moderate qualification, are
numei-ous and they respect and obey the law without alter-
ing it, and any one who has the required qualification shares
in the government, then, just because of this moderation, the
oligarchy inclines towards polity. But when only selected in- 1298 b3 ■
dividuals and not the whole people share in the deliberations
of the state, then, although, as in the former case, they observe i
the law, the government is a pure oligarchy. Or, again, 5 3,

when those who have the power of deliberation are self-
elected, and son succeeds father, and they and not the laws
are supreme — the government is of necessity oligarchical.
Where, again, particular persons have authority in particular 10
matters — for example, when the whole people decide about
peace and war and hold scrutinies, but the magistrates regulate
everything else, and they are elected either by vote or by lot —
there ^ the form of government is an aristocracy or polity ^.
And if some questions are decided by magistrates elected
by vote, and others by magistrates elected by lot, either
absolutely or out of select candidates, or elected both by
vote and by lot — these practices are partly characteristic of an

1 Reading with several of the IVTSS. apiffTOKparia rj TroXmia, and
omitting niv. Or, wi;h Bekker's text, apiaroKparia jxlv ij ttoKituo.,
' the government is an aristocracy.'

DAVIS N

178 In Democracies and Oligarchies

IV. 14 aristocratical government, and partly of a pure constitutional
government.

1 1 These are the various forms of the deliberative body ; they
correspond to the various forms of government. And the
government of each state is administered according to one or

12 other of the principles which have been laid down. Now it
is for the interest of democracy, according to the most
prevalent notion of it (I am speaking of that extreme form of
democracy, in which the people are supreme even over the
laws), with a view to better deliberation to adopt the custom

; of oligarchies respecting courts of law. For in oligarchies the
rich who are wanted to be judges are compelled to attend
under pain of a fine, whereas in democracies the poor are paid
to attend. And this practice of oligarchies should be
adopted by democracies in their public assemblies, for they
will advise better if they all deliberate together — the people

13 with the notables and the notables with the people. It is also
a good plan that those who deliberate should be elected

\ by vote or by lot in equal numbers out of the different

1 classes ; and that if the people greatly exceed in number

those who have political training, pay should not be given to

I all, but only to as many as would balance the number of the
notables, or that the number in excess should be eliminated
-T by lot. But in oligarchies either certain persons should be
chosen out of the mass, or a class of officers should be
appointed such as exist in some states, who are termed
probuli and guardians of the law ; and the citizens should
occupy themselves exclusively with matters on which these
have previously deliberated ; for so the people will have
a share in the deliberations of the state, but will not be able
IS to disturb the principles of the constitution. Again, in

The Executive 179

oligarchies either the people ought to accept the measures IV. 14

of the government, or not to pass anything contrary to them ;

or, if all are allowed to share in counsel, the decision should

rest with the magistrates. The opposite of what is done in

constitutional governments should be the rule in oligarchies ;

the veto of the majority should be final, their assent not final,

but the proposal should be referred back to the magistrates.

Whereas in constitutional governments they take the contrary i6

course ; the few have the negative not the affirmative power ;

the affirmation of everything rests with the multitude. 1299 a

These, then, are our conclusions respecting the deliberative,
that is, the supreme element in states.

Next we will proceed to consider the distribution of 15 ^ ^

offices ; this, too, being a part of politics concerning which /? / •

many questions arise : — What shall their number be ? Over
what shall they preside, and what shall be their duration ?
Sometimes they last for six months, sometimes for less;
sometimes they are annual, whilst in other cases offices are
held for still longer periods. Shall they be for life or for
a long term of years ; or, if for a short term only, shall
the same persons hold them over and over again, or once
only? Also about the appointment to them — from whom
are they to be chosen, by whom, and how ? We should 2
first be in a position to say what are the possible varieties of
them, and then we may proceed to determine which are
suited to different forms of government. But what are to be
included under the term ' offices ' i" That is a question not
quite so easily answered. For a political community requires
many officers ; and not every one who is chosen by vote or
by lot is to be regarded as a ruler. In the first place there
are the_jriestSj. who must be distinguished from political

N 2

i8o What Constitutes an Office?

IV. 15 officers ; masters of choruses and heralds, even ambassadors,
scare elected by vote [but still they are not political officers].
Some duties of superintendence again are political, extending
either to all the citizens in a single sphere of action, like
the office of the general who superintends them when they
are in the field, or to a section of them only, like the
inspectorships of women or of youth. Other offices are
concerned with household management, like that of the coi^n
measurers who exist in many states and are elected officers.
Tliere are also menial offices which the rich have executed by

4 their slaves. Speaking generally, they are to be called offices
to which the duties are assigned of deliberating about certain
measures and of judging and commanding, especially the last;
for to command is the especial duty of a magistrate. But the
question is not of any importance in practice ; no one has ever
brought into court the meaning of the word, although such
problems have a speculative interest.

5 What kinds of offices, and how many, are necessary to the
existence of a state, and which, if not necessary, yet conduce
to its well-being, are much more important considerations,

6 affecting all states, but more especially small ones. For in
great states it is possible, and indeed necessary, that every
office should have a special function ; where the citizens are
numerous, many may hold office. And so it happens that
vacancies occur in some offices only after long intervals, or
the office is held once only ; and certainly every work is

1299 b_better done which receives of the sole ^, and not the divided,

» ^u'TM'VM' .'^" 7 attention of the worker. But in small states it is necessary

tiivi&i^* to combine many offices in a few hands ", since the small

number of citizens does not admit of many holding office : —

» Cp. ii, 2. § 6. ^ Cp. vi. 8.

what Constitutes an Office ? 1 8 i

for who will there be to succeed them ? And yet small IV, 15
states at times require the same offices and laws as large ones ;
the difference is that the one want them often, the others only
after long intervals. Hence theie is no reason why the care 8
of many offices should not be imposed on the same person,
for they will not interfere with each other. When the
population is small, offices should be like the spits which also
serve to hold a lamp^ We must first ascertain how many
magistrates are necessary in every state, and also how many '^
are not exactly necessary, but are nevertheless useful, and
then there will be no difficulty in judging what offices can be
combined in one. We should also know when local tribunals 9
are to have jurisdiction over many different matters, and when
authority should be centralized: for example, should one
person keep order in the market and another in some other
place, or should the same person be responsible everywhere ?
Again, should offices be divided according to the subjects
with which they deal, or according to the persons with whom
they deal : I mean to say, should one person see to good
order in general, or one look after the boys, another after the
women, and so on ? Further, under different constitutions, 10
should the magistrates be the same or different ? For
example, in democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, monarchy,
should there be the same magistrates, although they are
elected, not out of equal or similar classes of citizens, but
differently under different constitutions — in aristocracies, for
example, they are chosen from the educated, in oligarchies
from the wealthy, and in democracies from the free — or are
there different offices proper to different constitutions'^, and

* Cp. Note on i. 2. § 3. * See note.

I 82 The Executive under

IV. 15 may the same be suitable to some, but unsuitable to others ?
For in some states it may be convenient that the same office
should have a more extensive, in other states a narrower

11 sphere. Special offices are peculiar to certain forms of
government : — for example, [to oligarchies] that of probuli,
which is not a democratic office, although a bule or council is.

(There must be some body of men whose duty is to prepare
measures for the people in order that they may not be diverted
from their business ; when these are few in number, the state
inclines to an oligarcliy : or rather the probuli must always be

12 few, and are therefore an oligarchical element. But when
both institutions exist in a state, the probuli are a check
on the council ; for the counsellor is a democratic element,
but the probuli are oligarchical. Even the power of the
council disappears when democracy has taken that extreme

1300 a form, in which the people themselves are always meeting and

13 deliberating about everything. This is the case when the
members of the assembly are wealthy or receive pay ; for
they have nothing to do and are always holding assemblies
and deciding everything for themselves. A magistracy which
controls the boys or the women, or any similar office, is
suited to an aristocracy rather than to a democracy ; for how
can the magistrates prevent the wives of the poor from going
out of doors ? Neither is it an oligarchical office ; for the
wives of the oligarchs are too fine to be controlled.

14 Enough of these matters. I will now enquire into the
appointment of offices. There are three questions to be
answered, and the combinations of answers give all possible
differences : first, who appoints ? secondly, from whom ? and

\, 15 thirdly, how? Each of these three may further differ in

ig At ^ r '^^^^ ways: (i) All the citizens, or only some, appoint;

Different Constitutions 183

(2) Either the magistrates are chosen out of all or out of IV. 15
some who are distinguished either by a property qualification, j
or by birth, or merit, or for some special reason, as at
Megara only those were eligible who had returned from exile
and fought together against the democracy; (3) They may
be_a2E2ilited_either by vote or by lot. Again, these several 16
modes may be combined ; I mean that some officers may be
elected by some, others by all, and some again out of some,
and others out of all, and some by vote and others by
lot. Each of these differences admits of four variations. 17
(i) Either all may elect out of all by vote, or all out of 1
all by lot ; and either out of all collectively or by sections, as, '
for example, by tribes, and wards, and phratries, until all the
citizens have been gone through ; or the citizens may be in
all cases eligible indiscriminately, and in some cases they may
be elected by vote, and in some by lot. Again, (2) if only 18
some appoint, they may appoint out of all by vote, or out
of all by lot ; or out of some by vote, out of some by lot, and
some offices may be appointed in one way and some in
another; I mean if they are appointed by all they may be
appointed partly by vote and partly by lot'. Thus there will,
be twelve forms of appointment without including the twoj
combinations in the mode of election. Of these varieties two/ 19
are democratic forms, namely, when the choice is made by all
the people out of all by vote or by lot, or by both, that is to
say, some by lot and some by vote. The cases in which they
do not all appoint at one time, but some appoint out of all or
out of some by vote or by lot or by both (I mean some by
lot and some by vote), or some out of all and others out

^ i. e. partly out of all and partly out of some, and partly by vote and
partly by lot (see infra c. 16. § 6).

184 The Executive

IV. 15 of some both by lot and vote, are characteristic of a polity or

20 constitutional government. That some should be appointed
out of all by vote or by lot or by both, is oligarchical, and still
more oligarchical when some are elected from all and some

'from some. That some should be elected out of all and

some out of some, or again some by vote and others by

1300 b lot, is characteristic of a constitutional government, which

21 inclines to an aristocracy. That some should be chosen out
of some, and some taken by lot out of some, is oligarchical
^ though not equally oligarchical ^ ; oligarchical, too, is the
appointment of some out of some in both ways, and of some
out of all. But that all should elect by vote out of some is
aristocratical.

22 These are the different ways of constituting magistrates,
and in this manner officers correspond to different forms
of government: — which are proper to which, or how they
ought to be established, will be evident when we determine
the nature of their powers ^ By powers I mean such power
as a rhagistrate exercises over the revenue or in defence of
the country ; for there are various kinds of power : the power
of the general, for example, is not the same with that which
regulates contracts in the market.

^ 16 Of the three parts of government, the judicial remains

_D • to be considered, and this we shall divide on the same

JudiCtait principle. There are three points on which the varieties
of law-courts depend — the persons from whom they are
appointed, the matters with which they are concerned, and the
manner of their appointment. I mean, (l) are the judges
taken from all, or from some only ? (2) how many kinds of

^ These words are bracketed by Bekker in both editions.
' Omitting Kai with some MSS. and the old translator.

7:
I8y

9^r£cJU;

J.: (f^UUjLi) OJ, tttT^le^ ^./UJiit l"^ uoH ^iOoo

Different Alodes of Appointing Judges

law-courts are there: (3) are the judges chosen by vote or IV
by lot ?

First, let me determine how many kinds of law-courts - ^'
there are. They are eight in number : One is die court of
audits or scrutinies ; a second takes cognizance of [ordinary]
offences against the state; a third is concerned^ with treason io-tv (jtro^
against the government ; the fourth ^determines disputes re-
^P^HiHH_B?™^iS^' whetlier raised by magistrates or by private
persons ; the fifth decides the more important civil cases ;
the sixth tries cases of homicide, which are of various kinds, 3
(a) premeditated, (&) unpremeditated, (c) cases in which the
guilt is confessed but the justice is disputed ; and there may
be a fourth court (d) in which murderers who have fled from
justice are tried after their return ; such as the Court of
Phreatto is said to be at Athens. But cases of this sort
rarely happen at all even in large cities. The different kinds
of homicide may be tried either by the same or by different
courts. (7) There are courts for strangers : — of these there 4
are two subdivisions, (a) for the settlement of their disputes
with one another, (&) for the settlement of disputes between I 1 r
them and the citizens. And besides all these there must be
(8) courts for small suits about sums of a drachma up to five
drachmae, or a little more, which have to be determined, but
they do not require many judges.

Nothing more need be said of these small suits, nor of the 5
courts for homicide and for strangers : — I would rather speak
of political cases, which, when mismanaged, create division and
disturbances in states.

Now if all the citizens judge, in all the different cases
which I have distinguished, they ma^ be appointed by vote
_or_ by lot, or soraetiaies by lot and sometimes by vote. Or

3\

I 8 (5 Different Modes of appointing Judges

IV. 16 when a certain class of causes are tried, the judges who de-

^cide them may be appointed, some by vote, and some by lot.

1301 a These then are the four modes of appointing judges from the

6 whole people, and there will be likewise four modes, if they
are elected from a part only ; for they rnay be appointed from
some by vote and judge in all causes ; or they may be

^ appointed from some by lot and judge in all causes ; or they
may be elected in some cases by vote, and m some cases taken
by lot, or some courts, even when judging the same causes,

T- may be composed of members some appointed by vote and
some by lot. These then are the ways in which the aforesaid
judges may be appointed.

7 Once more, the modes of appointment may be combined,
I mean, that some may be chosen out of the whole people,
others out of some, some out of both ; for example, the
same tribunal may be composed of some who were elected
out of all, and of others who were elected out of some, either
by vote or by lot or by both.

8 In how many forms law-courts can be established has now
been considered. The first form, viz. that in which the
judges are taken from all the citizens, and in which all

' • 1 causes are tried, is democratical ; the second, which is com-

i posed of a few only who try all causes, oligarchical ; the

J. ■■ \ third, in which some courts are taken from all classes, and

some from certain classes only, aristocratical and constitu-

BOOK V ^'fi^'^'n^auJf^''^

The design which we projDOsed to ourselves is now nearly V. 1
completed ^ Next in order follow the causes of revolution
in states, how many, and of what nature they are ; what
elements work ruin in particular states, and out of what, and
into what they mostly change ; also what are the elements of
preservation in states generally, or in a particular state, and
by what means each state may be best preserved : these
questions remain to be considered.

In the first place we must assume as our starting-point 2
that in the many forms of government which have sprung up
there has always been an acknowledgement of justice and^
proportionate equality, although mankind fail in attaining
them, as indeed I have already explained ^. Denipcracy, 3
for example, arises out of the notion that those who are
equal in any respect are equal in all respects ; because men |
are equally free, they claim to be absolutely equal. Ohgaichy
is based on the notion that those who are unequal in one
respect are in all respects unequal ; being unequal, that is, in
property, they suppose themselves to be unequal absolutely.
The democrats think that as they are equal they ought to be 4

^ Cp. iv. c. 2.

* Reading Kal with the MSS. and Bekker's ist ed.

• Cp. iii. 9. §§ 1-4.

1 88 T{evolutions : their Causes

V. 1 equal in all things ; while the oligarchs, under the idea that
they are unequal, claim too much, which is one form of

5 inequality. All these forms of government have a kind of

> justice, but, tried by an absolute standard, they are faulty ;
and, therefore, both parties, whenever their share in the
government does not accord with their preconceived ideas,

6 stir up revolution. Those who excel in virtue have the best
1301 b right of all to rebel (for they alone can with reason be deemed

absolutely unequal) ^, but then they are of all men the least

7 inclined to do so'^. There is also a superiority which is
claimed by men of rank ; for they are thought noble because
they spring from wealthy and virtuous ancestors ^. Here

8 then, so to speak, are opened the very springs and fountains

> of revolution ; and hence arise two sorts of changes in govern-
, ments ; the one affecting the constitution, when men seek to

change from an existing form into some other, for example,
from democracy into oligarchy, and from oligarchy into demo-
cracy, or from either of them into constitutional government or
aristocracy, and conversely ; the other not affecting the con-
j2.. - stitution, when, without disturbing the form of government,

whether oligarchy, or monarchy, or any other, they try to get

9 the administration into their own hands *. Further, there is
a question of degree ; an oligarchy, for example, may become

•^ * more or less oligarchical, and a democracy more or less demo-

cratical ; and in like manner the characteristics of the other

forms of government may be more or less strictly maintained.

, , , ■ lo Or, the revolution may be directed against a portion of the

I If ' ' " constitution only, e. g. the establishment or overthrow of

j " a particular office : as at Sparta it is said that Lysander

1 Cp. iii. 13. § 25. 2 Cp. c. 4. § 12.

2 Cp. iv. 8. § 9. * Cp. iv. 5. § 3.

The Desire of F quality 189

attempted to overthrow the monarchy, and king Pausanias^ V. 1
the ephoralty. At Epidamnus, too, the change was partial.
For instead of phylarchs or heads of tribes, a council was
appointed; but to this day the magistrates are the only 11
members of the ruling class who are compelled to go to the
Heliaea when an election takes place, and the office of the
single archon ^ [survives, which] is another oligarchical feature.
Everywhere inequality is a cause of revolution, but an in-
equality in which there is no proportion, for instance, a per- D ,

petual monarchy among equals; and alwaysjt^is .t.he.4gsii:e.of
equality which rises in rebellion.

Nov, equality is of two kinds, numerical and proportional ; la
by the first I mean sameness or equality in number or size ;
by the second, equality of ratios. For example, the excess of
three over two is equal to the excess of two over one ;
whereas four exceeds two in the same ratio in which two
exceeds one, for two is the same part of four that one is of
two, namely, the half. As I was saying before^, men agree 13
about justice in the abstract, that it is treating others according
to their deserts, but there is a difference of opinion about the
application of the principle ; some think that if they are equal
in any respect they are equal absolutely, others that if they are
unequal in any respect they are unequal in all. Hence there 14
are two principal forms of government, democracy and oli-
crarchy ; for good birth and virtue are rare, but wealth and 1302 a
numbers are more common. In what city shall we find
a hundred persons of good birth and of virtue ? whereas the
poor everywhere abound. That a state should be oidered,
simply and wholly, according to either kind of equality, is not

' Cp. vii. 14. § 20. * Cp. iii. 16. § I.

3 Cp. § 2; iii. 9. §§ 1-4.

ipo The Great Source of Involution

V. 1 a good thing ; the proof is the fact that such forms of govern-
15 ment never last. They are originally based on a mistake, and,
as they begin badly, cannot fail to end badly. The inference
is that both kinds of equality should be employed ; numerical
in some cases, and proportionate in others.
t Still democracy appears to be safer and less liable to revo-
lt lution than oligarchy '. For in oligarchies ^ there is the double
^ danger of the oligarchs falling out among themselves and also
with the people ; but in democracies ^ there is only the danger
of a quarrel with the oligarchs. No dissension worth men-
tioning arises among the people themselves. And we may
further remark that a government which is composed of the
S middle class more nearly approximates to democracy than to
oligarchy*, and is the safest of the imperfect forms of
government.
2 In considering how dissensions and political revolutions
arise, we must first of all ascertain the beginnings and causes
of them which affect constitutions generally. They may be
said to be three in number ; and we have now to give an out-
line of each. We want to know (l) what is the feeling ?
and (2) what are the motives of those who make them?

2 (3) whence arise political disturbances and quarrels ? The
universal and chief cause of this revolutionary feeling has been
already mentioned ; viz. the desire of equality, when men think
that they are equal to others who have more than themselves;
or, again, the desire of inequality and superiority, when con-
ceiving themselves to be superior they think that they have

3 not more but the same or less than their inferiors ; pretensions
which may and may not be just. Inferiors revolt in order

1 Cp. iv. II. § 14. 2 Cp. c. 6.

^ Cp. c. 5. * Omitting f\ before rSiv oAiywy.

Involutions 191

that they may be equal, and equals that they may be superior. V. 2
Such is the state of mind which creates revolutions. The
motives for making them are the desire of gain and honour,
or the fear of dishonour and loss ; tTiF authors of them want
to divert punishment or dishonour from themselves or their
friends. The causes and reasons of these motives and dis- 4
positions which are excited in men, about the things which
I have mentioned, viewed in one way, may be regarded as
seven, and in another as more than seven. Two of them 5
have been already noticed ' ; but they act in a different
manner, for men are excited against one another by the love
of gain and honour — not, as in the case which I have just
supposed, in order to obtain them for themselves, but at seeing 1302 b
others, justly or unjustly, engrossing them. Other causes are 6
insolence, fear, love of superiority, contempt, disproportionate
increase in some part of the state ; causes of another sort are
election intrigues, carelessness, neglect about trifles, dissimi-
larity of elements.

What share insolence and avarice have in creating revolu- 3
tions, and how they work, is plain enough. When the
magistrates are insolent and grasping they conspire against
one another and also against the constitution from which they
derive their power, making their gains either at the expense of
individuals or of the public. It is evident, again, what an a
influence hongur exerts and how it is a cause of revolution. Men
who are themselves dishonoured and who see others obtaining
honours rise in rebellion ; the honour or dishonour when un-
deserved is unjust, and just when awarded according to
merit. Again, superiority is a cause of revolution when one 3
or more persons have a power which is too much for the
* Supra §§ 2, 3.

192 Causes of T^eyohitions

V. 3 state and the power of the government ; this is a condition of
affairs out of which there arises a monarchy, or a family
oligarchy. And, therefore, in some places, as at Athens
and Argos, they have recourse to ostracism ^ But how
much better to provide from the first that there should be
no such pre-eminent individuals instead of letting them come
into existence and then finding a remedy.

4 Another cause of revolution is fear. Either men have
committed wrong, and are afraid of punishment, or _they_are
expecting to suffer wrong and are desirous of anticipating
their enemy ^. Thus at Rhodes the notables conspired
aoainst the people through fear of the suits that were brought

5 against them. Contempt is also a cause of insurrection and
"^ revolution ; for example, in oligarchies — when those who

have no share in the state are the majority, they revolt,
because they think that they are the stronger. Or, again, in
democracies, the rich despise the disorder and anarchy of the
state ; at Thebes, for example, where, after the battle of
Oenophyta, the bad administration of the democracy led to
its ruin. At Megara the fall of the democracy was due
to a defeat occasioned by disorder and anarchy. And at
Syracuse the democracy was overthrown before the tyranny
of Gelo arose ; at Rhodes before the insurrection.

6 Political revolutions also spring from a disproportionate
I .^ increase in any part of the state. For as a body is made

up of many members, and every member ought to grow

in proportion ^, that symmetry may be preserved, but loses

its nature if the foot be four cubits long and the rest of the

1303 a body two spans ; and, should the abnormal increase be one of

1 Cp. hi. 13- § 15- ' Cp. c. 5. § 2.

2 Cp. iii. 13. § 21.

Occasions of Involutions 193

quality as well as of quantity, may even take the foim of V. 3
another animal : even so a state has many parts, of which
some one may often grow imperceptibly ; for example, the
number of poor in democracies and in constitutional states. >C.
And this disproportion may sometimes happen by an accident, 7
as at Tarentum, from a defeat in which many of the notables
were slain in a battle with the lapygians just after the
Persian War, the constitutional government in consequence
becoming a democracy ; or, as was the case at Argos, where
after the losses inflicted in ' the Battle of the Seventh Day '
by Cleomenes the Lacedaemonian, the Argives were com-
pelled to admit to citizenship some of their perioeci : and at
Athens, when, after frequent defeats of their infantry in the
times of the Peloponnesian War, the notables were reduced
in number, because the soldiers had to be taken from the
roll of citizens. Revolutions arise from this cause in 8
democracies as well as in other forms of government, but not
to so great an extent. When the rich ^ grow numerous or
properties increase, the form of government changes into an
oligarchy or a government of families. Forms of government ,9
also change — sometimes even without revolution, owing to'
election contests, as at Heraea (where, instead of electing'^
their magistrates, they took them by lot, because the electors
were in the habit of choosing their own partisans) ; or owing
to carelessness, when disloyal persons are allowed to find >^
their way into the highest offices, as at Oreum, where, upon
the accession of Heracleodorus to office, the oligarchy was
overthrown, and changed by him into a constitutional and
democratical government.

^ Reading (virSpxv.
O

194 Occasions of 'Revolutions

V. 3 Again, the revolution may be accomplished by small

10 degrees ; I mean that a great change may sometimes slip
into the constitution through neglect of a small matter ; at
Ambracia, for instance, the qualification for office, small
at first, was eventually reduced to nothing. For the
Ambraciots thought that a small qualification was much the
same as none at all.

1 1 Another cause of revolution is difference of races which do
not at once acquire a common spirit ; for a state is not the
growth of a day, neither is it a multitude brought together
by accident. Hence the reception of strangers in colonies,
either at the time of their foundation or afterwards, has
generally produced revolution ; for example, the Achaeans
who joined the Troezenians in the foundation of Sybaris,
being the more numerous, afterwards expelled them ; hence

12 the curse fell upon Sybaris. At Thurii the Sybarites
quarrelled with their fellow-colonists ; thinking that the land
belonged to them, they wanted too much of it and were
driven out. At Byzantium the new colonists were detected
in a conspiracy, and were expelled by force of arms ; the
people of Antissa, who had received the Chian exiles, fought
with them, and drove them out ; and the Zancleans, after
having received the Samians, were driven by them out of

13 their own city. The citizens of Apollonia on the Euxine,
after the introduction of a fresh body of colonists, had a
revolution ; the Syracusans, after the expulsion of their

1303 b tyrants, having admitted strangers and mercenaries to the
rights of citizenship, quarrelled and came to blows ; the
people of Amphipolis, having received Chalcidian colonists,
were nearly all expelled by them.

14 Now, in oligarchies the masses make revolution undei the

Occasions of 'Revolutions i 9 j-

idea that they are unjustly treated, because, as I said before, V. 3
they are equals, and have not an equal share, and in
democracies the notables revolt, because they are not equals,
and yet have only an equal share.

Again, the situation of cities is a cause of revolution when i^
the country is not naturally adapted to preserve the unity
of the state. For example, the Chytrians at Clazomenae did
not agree with the people of the island ; and the people of
Colophon quarrelled with the Notians ; at Athens, too, the
inhabitants of the Piraeus are more democratic than those who
live in the city. For just as in war, the impediment of i6
a ditch, though ever so small, may break a regiment, so every
cause of difference, however slight, makes a breach in a
city. The greatest opposition is confessedly that of virtue
and vice ; next comes that of wealth and poverty ; and
there are other antagonistic elements, greater or less, of which
one is this difference of place.

In revolutions the occasions may be trifling, but greati4, t /

interests are at stake. Trifles are most important when! P^^ '7
they concern the rulers, as was the case of old at Syracuse ;
for the Syracusan constitution was once changed by a love-
quarrel of two young men, who were in the government.
The story is that while one of them was away from home 3
his beloved was gained over by his companion, and he to
revenge himself seduced the other's wife. They then drew
all the members of the ruling class into their quarrel and
made a revolution. We learn from this story that we should 3
be on our guard against the beginnings of such evils, and
should put an end to the quarrels of chiefs and mighty men.
The mistake lies in the beginning — as the proverb says,
' Well begun is half done ' — so an error at the beginning,
O 2

1^6 Occasions of 'Revolutions^

V. 4 though quite small, has the proportion of a half to the whole

4 matter. In general, when the notables quarrel, the whole city
is involved, as happened in Hestiaea after the Persian War.

_^ The occasion was the division of an inheritance ; one of
two brothers refused to give an account of their father's
property and the treasure which he had found : so the poorer
of the two quarrelled with him and enlisted in liis cause
the popular party, the other, who was very rich, the wealthy
classes.

5 At Delphi, again, a quarrel about a marriage was the
1304 a beginning of all the troubles which followed. In this case the

bridegroom, fancying some occurrence to be of evil omen,
came to the bride, and went away without taking her.
Whereupon her relations, thinking that they were insulted
by him, put some of the sacred treasure [among his offerings]
while he was sacrificing, and then slew him, pretending that

6 he had been robbing the temple. At Mitylene, too, a dis-
pute about heiresses was the beginning of many misfortunes,
and led to the war with the Athenians in which Paches took
their city. A wealthy citizen, named Timophanes, left two
daughters; Doxander, another citizen, wanted to obtain them
for his sons, but he was rejected in his suit, whereupon
he stirred up a revolution, and instigated the Athenians (of

7 whom he was proxenus) to interfere. A similar quarrel about
an heiress arose at Phocis between Mnaseas the father of
Mnason, and Euthycrates the father of Onomarchus ; this
was the beginning of the Sacred War. A marriage-quarrel
was also the cause of a change in the government of
Epidamnus. A certain man bethrothed his daughter secretly
to a person whose father, having been made a magistrate,
fined the father of the girl, and the latter, stung by the insult,

and the Marnier of Effecthig Them 197

conspired with the unenfranchised classes to overthrow the V. 4
state.

Governments also change into oligarchy or into democracy 8
or into a constitutional government because the magistrates, or [
some other section of the state, increase in power or renown.
Thus at Athens the reputation gained by the court of
the Areopagus, in the Persian War, seemed to tighten the
reins of government. On the other hand, the victory of
Salamis^, which was gained by the common people who
served in the fleet, and won for the Athenians the empire of
the sea, strengthened the democracy. At Argos, the notables, 9
having distinguished themselves against the Lacedaemonians
in the battle of Mantinea, attempted to put down the demo-
cracy. At Syracuse, the people having been the chief ,
authors of the victory in the war with the Athenians, changed j
the constitutional government into democracy. At Chalcis,
the people, uniting with the notables, killed Phoxus the
tyrant, and then seized the government. At Ambracia ^, the
people, in like manner, having joined with the conspirators in
expelling the tyrant Periander, transferred the government to
themselves. And generally, it should be remembered thatiCo
those who have secured power to the state, whether private ;
citizens, or magistrates, or tribes, or any other part or
section of the state, are apt to cause revolutions. For either ^
envy of their greatness draws others into rebellion, or they
themselves, in their pride of superiority, are unwilling to
remain on a level with others.

I Revolutions break out when opposite parties, e.g. the rich r i
land the poor, are equally balanced, and there is little or 1304b

^ Cp. ii. 12. § 5 ; viii. 6. § il.

"^ Cp. supra c. 3. § 10, and infra c. 10. § 16.

^ (|./W)i<^ffc7?nrM^

198 Occasions of Revolutions

V. 4 nothing between them ; for, if either party were manifestly

1 2 superior, the other would not risk an attack upon them. And,
for this reason, those who are eminent in virtue do not stir up
insurrections, being always a minority. Such are the beginnings
and causes of the disturbances and revolutions to which every
form of government is liable.

Revolutions are effected in two ways, by force and by
fraud. Force may be applied either at the time of making the

13 revolution or afterwards. Fraud, again, is of two kinds ; for
(i) sometimes the citizens are deceived into a change of

1 government, and. afterwards they are held in subjection against
' their will. This was what happened in the case of the Four
Hundred, who deceived the people by telling them that the
king would provide money for the war against the Lace-
daemonians, and when the deception was over, still endeavoured
to retain the government, (2) In other cases the people are
persuaded at first, and afterwards, by a repetition of the
persuasion, their goodwill and allegiance are retained. The
revolutions which affect constitutions generally spring from
the above-mentioned causes ^.
5 And now, taking each constitution separately, we must see
what follows from the principles already laid down.

Revolutions in democracies are generally caused by the in-

>^X,'lAM//>^'

¥

{temperance of demagogues, who either in their private capacity

v^ . , lay information against rich men until they compel them

/ to combine (for a common danger unites even the bitterest

enemies), or coming forward in public they stir up the people

against them. The truth of this remark is proved by a

2 variety of examples. At Cos the democracy was overthrown

because wicked demagogues arose, and the notables combined.

' Cp. supra c. 2. § I.

^volutions in Democracies 199

At Rhodes the demagogues not only provided pay for the V. 5
multitude, but prevented them from making good to the
trierarchs the sums which had been expended by them ;
and they, in consequence of the suits which were brought
against them, were compelled to combine and put down the
democracy ^. The democracy at Heraclea was overthrown 3
shortly after the foundation of the colony by the injustice of
the demagogues, which drove out the notables, who came
back in a body and put an end to the democracy. Much in 4
the same manner the democracy at Megara ^ was overturned ;
there the demagogues drove out many of the notables in
order that they might be able to confiscate their property. At
length the exiles, becoming numerous, returned, and engaging
and defeating the people, established an oligarchy. The same 1305 a
thing happened with the democracy of Cyme which was over-
thrown by Thrasymachus. And we may observe that in most .S
states the changes have been of this character. For sometimes
the demagogues, in order to curry favour with the people,/
wrong the notables and so force them to combine ; — either
they make a division of their property, or diminish their^
incomes by the imposition of public services, and sometimes
they bring accusations against the rich that they may have
their wealth to confiscate '.

Of old, the demagogue was also a general, and then demo- 6
cracies changed into tyrannies. Most of the ancient tyrants I
were originally demagogues *. They are not so now, but 7
they were then ; and the reason is that they were generals
and not orators, for oratory had not yet come into fashion.
Whereas in our day, when the art of rhetoric has made such

1 Cp. supra c. 3. § 4. ** Cp. c. 3. § 5, and iv, 15. § 15.

3 Cp. infra c. 8. § 20. * Cp. c. 10. § 4 ; Plato, Rep. viii. 565 D.

2 00 The Demagogue and the Tyrant

V. 5 progress, the orators lead the people, but their ignorance of
military matters prevents them from usurping power ; at any

8 rate instances to the contrary are few and slight. Formerly
tyrannies were more common than they are now, because
great power was often placed in the hands of individuals ;
thus a tyranny arose at Miletus out of the office of the Pry-
tanis, who had supreme authority in many important matters*.
Moreover, in those days, when cities were not large, the
people dwelt in the fields, busy at their work ; and their chiefs,

9 if they possessed any military talent, seized the opportunity,
and winning the confidence of the masses by professing their
hatred of the wealthy, they succeeded in obtaining the tyranny.
Thus at Athens Peisistratus led a faction against the men of
the plain ^, and Theagenes at Megara slaughtered the cattle
of the wealthy, which he found by the river side where they

10 had put them to graze, Dionysius, again, was thought woithy
of the tyranny because he denounced Daphnaeus and the rich ;
his enmity to the notables won for him the confidence of the
people. Changes also take place from the ancient to the
latest form of democracy ; for where there is a popular elec-

j tion of the magistrates and no property qualification, the
aspirants for office get hold of the people, and contrive at

11 last even to set them above the laws. A more or less com-
plete cure for this state of things is for the separate tribes,
and not the whole jseople, to elect the magistrates.

These are the principal causes of revolutions in demo-
cracies.
6 There are two patent causes of revolutions in oligarchies
[one coming from without, the other from within the govern-
ment] : (l) First, when the oligarchs oppress the people,
^ Cp. infra c. 10. § 5. ' See Herod, i. 59.

Involutions in Oligarchies 20 r

for then anybody is good enough to be their champion, V. 6
especially if he be himself a member of the oligarchy, as 1305 b
Lygdamis at Naxos, who afterwards came to be tyrant. JBut 2
revolutions which commence outside the governing class may
be further subdivided. Sometimes, when the government is
very exclusive, the revolution is brought about by persons of^ "^

the wealthy class who are excluded, as happened at Massalia
and Istros and Heraclea, and other cities. Those who had 3
no share in the government created a disturbance, until first
the elder brothers, and then the younger, were admitted ; for
in some places father and son, in others elder and younger
brothers, do not hold office together. At Massalia the oli-
garchy became more like a constitutional government, but at
Istros ended in a democracy, and at Heraclea was enlarged
to 600. At Cnidos, again, the oligarchy underwent a con- 4
siderable change. For the notables fell out among themselves,
because only a few shared in the government ; there existed
among them the rule already mentioned, that father and son
could not hold office together, and, if there were several
brothers, only the eldest was admitted. The people took
advantage of the quarrel, and choosing one of the notables to
be their leader, attacked and conquered the oligarchs, who
were divided, and division is always a source of weakness.
The city of Erythrae, too, in old times was ruled, and ruled 5
well, by the Basilidae, but the people took offence at the
narrowness of the oligarchy and changed the government.

(2) Of internal causes of revolutions in oligarchies one is
the personal rivalry of the oligarchs, which leads them to
play the demagogue. Now, the oligarchical demagogue is of'
two sorts : either (i) he practises upon the oligarchs them-
selves (for, although the oligarchy are quite a small number.

4.

2 02 Their Causes External and Internal

V. 6 there may be a demagogue among them, as at Athens the
party of Charicles predominated among the Thirty, that of
Phrynichus in the Four Hundred) ; or (2) the oligarchs may
play the demagogue with the people. This was the case at
Larissa, where the guardians of the citizens endeavoured to
gain over the people because they were elected by them ; and
such is the fate of all oligarchies in which the magistrates are
elected, as at Abydos, not by the class to which they belong,
but by the heavy-armed or by the people, although they may
be required to have a high qualification, or to be members of

7 a political club ; or, again, where the law-courts are inde-
pendent of the government, the oligarchs flatter the people in
order to obtain a decision in their own favour, and so they
change the constitution ; this happened at Heraclea in Pontus.
Again, oligarchies change whenever any attempt is made to
narrow them ; for then those who desire equal rights are com-

8 pelled to call in the people. Changes in the oligarchy also
occur when the oligarchs waste their private property by

< extravagant living ; for then they want to innovate, and

1306 a either try to make themselves tyrants, or install some one else

in the tyranny, as Hipparinus did Dionysius at Syracuse, and

as at Amphipolis^ a man named Cleotimus introduced Chal-

cidian colonists, and when they arrived, stirred them up

9 against the rich. For a like reason in Aegina the person
who carried on the negotiation with Chares endeavoured to
revolutionize the state. Sometimes a party among the oli-
garchs try to create a political change ; sometimes they rob
the treasury, and then, either the other oligarchs quarrel with
the thieves, as happened at Apollonia in Pontus, or they with
the other oligarchs. But an oligarchy which is at unity

1 Cp. c. 3. § 13.

7'

Oligarchy^ Dangers in Peace and War 203

with itself is not easily destroyed from within ; of this we V.
may see an example at Pharsalus, for there, although the lo
rulers are few in number, they govern a large city, because
they have a good understanding among themselves.

Oligarchies, again, are overthrown when another oligarchy
is created within the original one, that is to say, wlien thejii
whole governing body is small and yet they do not all share*
in the highest offices. Thus at Elis the governing body was
a small senate ; and vcjy few ever found their way into it,
because, although in number ninety, the senators were elected
for life and out of certain families in a manner similar to the
Lacedaemonian elders. Oligarchy is liable to revolutions 12
alike in war and in peace ; in war because, not being able to
trust the people, the oligarchs are compelled to hire mer- | o-,

cenaries, and the general who is in command of them often
ends in becoming a tyrant, as Timophanes did at Corinth ; or
if there are more generals than one they make themselves into
a company of tyrants ^ Sometimes the oligarchs, fearing
this danger, give the people a share in the government because
their services are necessary to them. And in time of peace, 13 - "i

from mutual distrust, the two parties hand over the defence
of the state to the army and to an arbiter between the two
factions who often ends the master of both. This happened
at Larissa when Simosand the Aleuadae had the government,
and at Abydos in the days of Iphiades and the political clubs.
Revolutions also arise out of marriages or lawsuits which lead 14
to the overthrow of one party among the oligarchs by another. "^ ♦

Of quarrels about marriages I have already mentioned '^ some
instances ; another occurred at Eretria, where Diagoras over-
turned the oligarchy of the knights because he had been
^ SwaffTfta. ^ Cp. c. 4. §§ 5-7.

1

k

204 Involutions in Oligarchies

V. 6 wronged about a marriage. A revolution at Heraclea, and

15 another at Thebes, both arose out of decisions of law-courts

upon a charge of adultery ; in both cases the punishment was

just, but executed in the spirit of party, at Heraclea upon

1306 b Eurytion, and at Thebes upon Archias ; for their enemies

were jealous of them and so had them pilloried in the

:6 agora. Many oligarchies have been destroyed by some

members of the ruling class taking offence at their excessive

despotism; for example, the oligarchy at Cnidus and at

Chios.

Changes of constitutional governments, and also of oli-
garchies which limit the office of counsellor, judge, or other
magistrate to persons having a certain money qualification,
*^* 17 often occur by accident. The qualification may have been

originally fixed according to the circumstances of the time, in
such a manner as to include in an oligarchy a few only, or
in a constitutional government the middle class. But aftei
a time of prosperity, whether arising from peace or some
other good fortune, the same property becomes many times
as large, and then everybody participates in every office ; this
happens sometimes gradually and msensibly, and sometimes
1 8 quickly. These are the causes of changes and revolutions in
oligarchies.

We must remark generally, both of democracies and oli-

I garchies, that they sometimes change, not into the opposite

' forms of government, but only into another variety of the

' y same class ; I mean to say, from those forms of democracy

and oligarchy which are regulated by law into those which are

arbitrary, and conversely.

;'4*.'&/'*v» /t 17, In aristocracies revolutions are stirred up when a few only

(JfCt^fvt.\l^e4£i> {share in the honours of the state ; a cause which has been

'Revolutions in Oligarchies 205*

already shown to affect oligarchies ; for an aristocracy is V. 7

a sort of oligarchy, and, like an oligarchy, is the government

of a few, although the few are the virtuous and not the

wealthy ; hence the two are often confounded. And revo- 2

lutions will be most likely to happen, and must happen, when 1

the majority of the people are high-spirited, and have a notion | '/ 1

that they are as good as their rulers. Thus at Lacedaemon

the so-called Partheniae, who were the [illegitimate] sons of,

the Spartan peers, attempted a revolution, and, being detected, '

were sent away to colonize Tarentum. Again, revolutions

occur when great men who are at least of equal merit arel ^5,

dishonoured by those higher in office, as Lysander was by' 3

the kings of Sparta : or, when a brave man is excluded from ^

the honours of the state, like Cinadon, who conspired against ' '

the Spartans under Agesilaus ; or, again, when some are very

poor and others very rich, a state of society which is most K

often the result of war, as at Lacedaemon in the days of the

Messenian War ; this is proved from the poem of Tyrtaeus, 4

entitled ' Good Order' ; for he speaks of certain citizens who 1307a

were ruined by the war and wanted to have a redistribution of

the land. Again, revolutions arise when an individual who A

is great, and might be greater, wants to rule alone, as at Lace- ^

daemon, Pausanias, who was general in the Persian War, or

like Hanno at Carthage.

Constitutional governments and aristocracies are commonly 5
overthrown owing to some deviation from justice in the con-j f ^

stitution itself; the cause of the downfall is, in the former,
the ill-mingling of the two elements democracy and oligarchy ;
in the latter, of the three elements, democracy, oligarchy, and
virtue, but especially democracy and oligarchy. For to com-
bine these is the endeavour of constitutional governments ;

10 6 I\evolutions in Aristocracies^ etc.

7 and most of the so-called aristocracies have a like aim ^, but

6 differ from polities by the addition of virtue ; hence some of
them are more and some less permanent. Those which
incline more to oligarchy are called aristocracies, and those
which incline to democracy constitutional governments. And
therefore the latter are the safer of the two ; for the greater
the number, the greater the strength, and when men are equal

7 they are contented. But the rich, if the government gives
them power, are apt to be insolent and avaricious ; and, in
general, whichever way the constitution inclines, in that direc-
tion it changes as either party gains strength, a constitutional
government becoming a democracy, an aiistocracy, an oli-

8 garchy. But the process may be reversed, and aristocracy
^\ may change into democracy. This happens when the poor,

under the idea that they are being wronged, force the consti-
tution to take an opposite form. In like manner constitutional
governments change into oligarchies. The only stable prin-
ciple of government is equality according to proportion, and
j for every man to enjoy his own.

9 What I have just mentioned actually happened at Thurii ^,
where the qualification for office, though at first high, was
reduced, and the magistrates increased in number. The
notables had previously acquired the whole of the land
contrary to law ; for the government tended to oligarchy, and
they were able to encroach. But tlie people, who had been
trained by war, soon got the better of the guards kept by the
oligarchs, until those who had too much gave up their land.

lo Again, since all aristocratical governments incline to oli-
garchy, the notables are apt to be grasping; thus at Lacedae-
mon, where property has passed into few hands ^, the notables
1 Cp. iv. c. 7. ^ Cp. c. 3. § 12. ^ Cp. ii. 9. § 14.

T^evoluiions in Mixed Governments 207

can do too much as they like, and are allowed to marry whom v. 7
they please. The city of Locri was ruined by a marriage
connexion with Dionysius, but such a thing could never have
happened in a democracy, or in a well-balanced aristocracy.

I have alieady remarked that in all states revolutions are^'n
occasioned by trifles '. In aristocracies, above all, they are of 1307 d
a gradual and imperceptible nature. The citizens begin by^,
giving up some part of the constitution, and so with greater
ease the government change something else which is a little
more important, until they have undermined the whole fabric
of the state. At Thurii there was a law that generals should 1 2
only be re-elected after an interval of five years, and some
high-spirited young men who were popular with the soldiers
of the guard, despising the magistrates and thinking that they
would easily gain their purpose, wanted to abolish this law and .
allow their generals to hold perpetual commands ; for they (
well knew that the people would be glad enough to elect them.
Whereupon the magistrates who had charge of these matters, 13
and who are called councillors, at first determined to resist,
but they afterwards consented, thinking that, if only this one
law was changed, no further inroad would be made on the
constitution. But other changes soon followed which they in
vain attempted to oppose ; and the state passed into the hands
of the revolutionists who established a dynastic oligaichy.

All constitutions are overthrown either from within orfromji<
without ; the latter, when there is some government close at I
hand having an opposite interest, or at a distance, but powerful.
This was exemplified in the old times of the Athenian and
the Lacedaemonian supremacies ; the Athenians everywhere

4. § I.

sr

U

208 The Preservation of States

V. 7 put down the oligarchies, and the Lacedaemonians the
democracies ^.

1 have now explained what are the chief causes of revolu-
tions and dissensions in states.
8 We have next to consider what means there are of pre-
'CiH 0] p'-3r//'' I serving states in general, and also in particular cases. In the
'^lai'L ^''-'''^ place it is evident that if we know the causes which

destroy states, we shall also know the causes which preserve
them ; for opposites produce opposites, and destruction is the
opposite of preservation ^.

2 In all well-attempered governments there is nothing which
should be more jealously maintained than the spirit of
obedience to law, more especially in small matters ; for
'transgression creeps in unperceived and at last ruins the state,
just as the constant recurrence of small expenses in time eats

3 up a fortune. The change does not take place all at once,
and therefore is not observed ; the mind is deceived, as in the
fallacy which says that ' if each part is little, then the whole
is little.' And this is true in one way, but not in another, for
the whole and the all are not little, although they are made up
of littles.

4 In the first place, then, men should guard against the
beginning of change, and in the second place they should not

a rely upon the political devices of which I have already
spoken ^, invented only to deceive the people, for they are

5 proved by experience to be useless. Further we note that
oligarchies as well as aristocracies may last, not from any
inherent stability in such forms of government, but because the
rulers are on good terms both with the unenfranchised and

> Cp. iv. II. § 18. * Cp. Nic. Eth. v. i. § 4.

» Cp. iv. 13. § I.

Hoiv to avoid ^volution 209

with the governing classes, not maltreating any who are V. 8

excluded from the government, but introducing into it the

leading spirits among them ^ They should never wrong the 3i

ambitious in a matter of honour, or the common people in

a matter of money ; and they should treat one another and

their fellow-citizens in a spirit of equality. The equality 6

which the friends of democracy seek to establish for the

multitude is not only just but likewise expedient among equals.

Hence, if the governing class are numerous, many democratic

institutions are useful ; for example, the restriction of the

tenure of offices to six months, that all those who are of

equal rank may share in them. Indeed, equals or peers when

they are numerous become a kind of democracy, and therefore

demagogues are very likely to arise among them, as I have *4-.

already remarked ^ The short tenure of office prevents o'i"f 7//^ffv<< (k<t,u/i.

garchies and aristocracies from falling into the hands ofj /ff'^f. Lrctuu>^ «i

families ; it is not easy for a person to do any great harm Jf-L ^-nA&LU^

when his tenure of office is short, whereas long possession %^^^f,^{^ oS^

begets tyranny in oligarchies and democracies. For the

aspirants to tyranny are either the principal men of the state,

who in democracies are demagogues and in oligarchies

members of ruling houses, or those who hold great offices,

and have a long tenure of them '.

States are preserved when their destroyers are at a distance. S jr

and sometimes also because they are near, for the fear of them
makes the government keep in band the state. Wherefore the
ruler who has a care of the state should invent terrors, and
bring distant dangers near, in order that the citizens may be on
their guard, and, like sentinels in a night-watch, never relax
their attention. He should endeavour too by help of the laws 9
1 vi. 7. § 4. ^ Supra c. 6. § 6. ' Cp. c. 5. § 6.

DAVIS P

2 I o HoTv to avoid J^volution in

V. 8 to control the contentions and quarrels of the notables, and to

prevent those who have not hitherto taken part in them from

being drawn in. No ordinary man can discern the beginning

''^of evil\ but only the true statesman.

/ lo As to the change produced in oligarchies and constitutional

. ' governments'^ by the alteration of the qualification, when this

y''^ &*. yya ^ arises, not out of any variation in the census but only out of

the increase of money, it is well to compare the general

.valuation of property with that of past years, annually in those

|cities in which the census is taken annually, and in larger

1308b;clties every third or fifth year. If the whole is many times

greater or many times less than when the rates were fixed at

the previous census, there should be power given by law to

raise or lower the qualification as the amount is greater or less.

11 Where in the absence of any such provision the standard is
raised, a constitutional government passes into an oligarchy,
and an oligarchy is narrowed to a rule of families ; where
the standard is lowered, constitutional government becomes
democracy, and oligarchy either constitutional government or
democracy.

12 It is a principle common to democracy, oligarchy^, and
"7. every other form of government not to allow the dispropor-

jtionate increase of any citizen, but to give moderate honour for

I a long time rather than great honour for a short time. For

men are easily spoilt ; not every one can bear prosperity. But

if this rule is not observed, at any rate the honours which are

' given all at once should be taken away by degrees and not all

at once. Especially should the laws provide against any one

1 Cp. c. 4. §§ 1-3. =* Cp. c. 3. § 8 ; c, 6. §§ 16-18.

' Or, adding Kal fxovapxia, 'monarchy,' with many MSS. and
Bekker's first edition.

Oligarchy and Democracy

211

having too much power, whether derived from friends oi V. S
money ; if he has, he and his followers should be sent out of
the country^. And since innovations creep in through the 13
private life of individuals, there ought to be a magistracy which
will have an eye to those whose life is not in harmony with
the government, whether oligarchy or democracy or any other.
And for a like reason an increase of prosperity in any part of ^
the state should be carefully watched. The proper remedy i^
for this evil is always to give the management of affairs and
offices of state to opposite elements ; such opposites are the
virtuous and the many, or the rich and the poor. Another
way is to combine the poor and the rich in one body, or to
increase the middle class : thus an end will be put to the
revolutions which arise from inequality.

But above all every state should be so administered and so 15
regulated by law that its magistrates cannot possibly make ; ' ' 1-/,

money ^. In oligarchies special precautions should be used ' f.-f-r"/}, i^^.
against this evil. For the people do not take any great 16 -.{Lii-r it*^
offence at being kept out of the government — indeed they are
rather pleased than otherwise at having leisure for their private
business — but what irritates them is to think that their rulers
are stealing the public money ; then they are doubly annoyed ;
for they lose both honour and profit. If office brought no 17
profit, then and then only could democracy and aristocracy be
combined ; for both notables and people might have their 1309 a
wishes gratified. All would be able to hold office, which is
the aim of democracy, and the notables would be magistrates,
which is the aim of aristocracy. And this result may be 18
accomplished when there is no possibility of making money

X

' Cp^c. 3. § 3; iii. 13. § 15. » Cp. c. 13. § 14.

P 2

212

Oligarchy and Democracy Preserved

v. 8 out of the offices ; for the poor will not want to have them
when there is nothing to be gained from them — they would
[rather be attending to their own concerns; and the rich, who
do not want money from the public treasury, will be able to
take them ; and so the poor will keep to their work and giow
X rich, and the notables will not be governed by the lower class,

19 In order to avoid peculation of the public money, the transfer
of the revenue should be made at a general assembly of the
citizens, and duplicates of the accounts deposited with the
different brotherhoods, companies, and tribes. And honours
should be given by law to magistrates who have the reputation

20 of being incorruptible. In democracies the rich should be
spared ; not only should their property not be divided, but
their incomes also, which in some states are taken from them
imperceptibly, should be protected. It is a good thing to
prevent the wealthy citizens, even if they are willing, from
undertaking expensive and useless public services, such as the
giving of choruses, torch-races, and the like. In an oligarchy,
on the other hand, great care should be taken of the poor, and

^- lucrative offices should go to them ; if any of the wealthy
' classes insult them, the offender should be punished more
severely ^ than one of their own class for a like offence ^
Provision should be made that estates pass by inheritance and
not by gift, and no person should have more than one inheri-
tance ; for in this way properties will be equalized, and more

21 of the poor rise to competency. It is also expedient both in
a democracy and In an oligarchy to assign to those who have
less share in the government (for example, to the rich in

I a democracy and to the poor in an oligarchy) an equality or

' preference in all but the principal offices of state. The latter

^ Or, ' than if he had wronged one of his own class.'

by Loyalty and Moderation 213

should be entrusted chiefly or only to members of the govern- V. 8
ing class.

There arejjj^gg^ualifications required in those who have
to fill the highest offices — (l) first of all, Joyalty to the 9 ' •

established constitution ; ^ the greatest administrative ■^ •

capacity; (3) virtue and justice of the kind proper to each ^,

form of government ; for, if what is just is not the same in all
governments, the quality of justice must also differ. There
may be a doubt howevei, when all these qualities do not meet 2
in the same person, how the selection is to be made ; suppose,
for example, a good general is a bad man and not a friend to 1309 b
the constitution, and another man is loyal and just, which
should we choose ? In making the election ought we not
to consider two points ? what qualities are common, and what
are rare. Thus in the choice of a general, we should regard
his skill rather than his virtue ; for few have military skill, 5
but many have virtue. In keeping watch or in any office of
stewardship, on the other hand, the opposite rule should be
observed ; for more virtue than ordinary is required in the
holder of such an office, but the necessary knowledge is of
a sort which all men possess.

It may, however, be asked what a man wants with virtue if 4
he have political ability and is loyal, since these two qualities
alone will make him do what is for the public interest. But
may not men have both of them and yet be deficient in self-
control ? If, knowing and loving their own interests, they do
not always attend to them, may they not be equally negligent
of the interests of the public ?

Speaking generally, we may say that whatever legal enact- 5
ments are held to be for the interest of states, all these preserve
states. And the great preserving principle is the one which

If

214 Preservatives of

V. 9 has been repeatedly mentioned' — to have a care that the loyal
6| citizens should outnumber the disloyal. Neither should we
forget the mean, which at the present day is lost sight of in
perverted forms of government : for many practices which
appear to be democratical are the ruin of democracies, and
many which appear to be oligarchical ve the ruin of oligarchies.

7 Those who think that all virtue is to be found in their own
party principles push matters to extremes ; they do not con-
sider that disproportion destroys a state. A nose which varies
from the ideal of straightness to a hook or snub may still be
of good shape and agreeable to the eye;,,but if the excess be

P<iMe.f fJ.lP. j very great, all symmetry is lost, and the nose at last ceases to

'/ 2 . be a nose at all on account of some excess in one direction or

defect in the other ; and this is true of every other part of the

8 human body. The same law of proportion equally holds in
states. Oligarchy or democracy, although a departure from
the most perfect form, may yet be a good enough government,
but if any one attempts to push the principles of either to an
extreme, he will begin by spoiling the government and end by

9 having none at all. Wherefore the legislator and the states-
man ought to know what democratical measures save and
what destroy a democracy, and what oligarchical measures save
or destroy an oligarchy. For neither the one nor the other
can exist or continue to exist unless both rich and poor are
included in it. If equality of property is introduced, the state

1310 a must of necessity take another form ; for when by laws carried
S^ i to excess one or other element in the state is ruined, the con-
stitution is ruined.
10 There is an error common both to oligarchies and to
democracies : — in the latter the demagogues, when the multi-
' Cp. iv. 12. § I ; vi. 6. § 2.

6«^^

Oligarchy and Democracy 215*

tude are above the law, are always cutting the city in two by V. 0
quarrels with the rich, whereas they should always profess to
be maintaining their cause ; just as in oligarchies, the oligarchs
should profess to maintain the cause of the people, and should
take oaths the opposite of those which they now take. For ii
there are cities in which they swear — ' I will be an enemy to
the people, and will devise all the harm against them which
I can ; ' but they ought to exhibit and to entertain the very
opposite feeling ; in the form of their oath there should be an
express declaration — ' I will do no wrong to the people.'

But of all the things which I have mentioned, that which
most contributes to the permanence of constitutions is the 4 ,>.
adaptation of education to the form of government^, and yet \ „.^hckcc
in our own day this principle is universally neglected. The 12
best laws, though sanctioned by every citizen of the state,
will be of no avail unless the young are trained by habit and
education in the spirit of the constitution, if the laws are
democratical, democratically, or oligarchically if the laws are
oligarchical. For there may be a want of self-discipline in
states as well as in individuals. Now, to have been educated 13
in the spirit of the constitution is not to perform the actions in
which oligarchs or democrats delight, but those by which the
existence of an oligarchy or of a democracy is made possible.
Whereas among ourselves the sons of the ruling class in an
oligarchy live in luxury -, but the sons of the poor are hardened
by exercise and toil, and hence they are both more inclined
and better able to make a revolution ^. And in democracies i,j
of the more extreme type there has arisen a false idea of
freedom which is contradictory to the true interests of the

^ Cp. i. 13. § 15. 2 Cp. iv. II. § 6.

* Cp. Pi. Rep. viii. 556 d.

zi6 Origin of Tyranny

V. 9|State. For two princi^^les are characteristic of democracy, the

15 [government of the majority and freedom. Men think that

what is just is equal ; and that equality is the supremacy ot

the popular will ; and that freedom and equality mean the

doing what a man likes. In such democracies every one lives

^as he pleases, or in the words of Euripides, 'according to his

i P*^f^** If- '^'^'^ fancy.' But this is all wrong; men should not think it

« ^ islavery to live according to the rule of the constitution ; for it

^ <^ jis theij salvation.

tL -^ I have now discussed generally the causes of the revolution

f V^^ and destruction of states, and the means of their preservation

r^-^ and continuance.

J? >^ 10 I '^'ive still to speak of monarchy, and the causes of its

<^ "V destruction and preservation. What I have said already

^ 1310 b respecting other forms of government applies almost equally

":^ 2 '•o royal and to tyrannical rule. For royal rule is ot the

I S nature of an aristocracy, and a tyranny is a compound of

S i -v*! oligarchy and democracy in their most extreme forms ; it is

L ^ therefore most injurious to its subjects, being made up of two

evil forms of government, and having the perversions and

^ errors of both. These two forms of monarchy differ in their

veiy origin. The appointment of a king is the resource of

~ the better classes against the people, and he is elected by

them out of their own number, because either he liimself or

" his family excel in virtue and virtuous actions ; whereas a

tyrant is chosen from the people to be their protector against

• the notables, and in order to prevent them from being injured.

A History shows that almost all tyrants have been demagogues

I who gained the favour of the people by their accusation of the

r notables ^. At any rate this was the manner in which the

* Cp. c. 5. § 6 ; Plato, Rep. 565 d.

Origin of Tyranny 217

tyrannies arose in the days when cities had increased in power. V. 10
Others which were older originated jn_the ambition of kings
wanting to overstep the limits of their hereditary power and
become despots. Others again grew out of the class which
were chosen to be chief magistrates ; for in ancient times the .
people who elected them gave the magistrates, whether civil or >5 •

religious, a long tenure. Others arose out of the custom
which oligarchies had of making some individual supreme over
the highest offices. In any of these ^ ways an ambitious man 6
had no difficulty, if he desired, in creating a tyranny, since he
had the power in his hands already, either as king or as one of
the officers of state ^. Thus Pheidon at Argos and several
others were originally kings, and ended by becoming tyrants ;
Phalaris, on the other hand, and the Ionian tyrants, acquired
the tyianny by holding great offices. Whereas Panaetius at
Leontini, Cypselus at Corinth, Peisistratus at Athens, Diony-
sius at Syracuse, and several others who afterwards became
tyrants, were at first demagogues.

And so, as I was saying, royalty ranks with aristocracy, fori 7
it is based upon merit, whether of the individual or of his'
family, or on benefits conferred ^, or on these claims with
power added to them. For all who have obtained this honour 8
have benefited, or had in their power to benefit, states and
nations ; some, like Codrus, have prevented the state from "^
being enslaved in war ; others, like Cyrus, have given their
country freedom, or have settled or gained a territory, like the "^
Lacedaemonian, Macedonian, and Molossian kings*. The 9
idea of a king is to be a protector of the rich against unjust 1311 a

^ Retaining toi/'tois, which is omitted in Bekker's second edition,
apparently by mistake.

"^ Cp. c. 5. § S. = Cp. iii. 14. § 12. ♦ Cp. c. II, § 2.

21

8 Tyranny^ Oligarchy^ Democracy

V. 10 treatment, of the people against insult and oppression. Whereas

a tyrant, as has often been repeated, has no regard to any

public interest, but only to his private ends ; his aim is plea-

^o sure, the aim of a king, honour. Wherefore also in their

desires they differ ; the tyrant is desirous of riches, the king,

"^ of what brings honour. And the guards of a king are citizens,

kfe u"^ •■ jl but of a^tyrant rnercejiaries ^

11 That tyranny has all the vices both of democracy and
oligarchy is evident. As of oligarchy so of tyranny, the end
is wealth ; (for by wealth only can the tyrant maintain either
his guard or his luxury). Both mistrust the people, and
therefore deprive them of their arms. Both agree too in
injuring the people and diiving them out of the city and

12 dispersing them. From democracy tyrants have borrowed the
art of making war upon the notables and destroying them
secretly or openly, or of exiling them because they are rivals
and stand in the way of their power ; and also because plots
against them are contrived by men of this class, who either

13 want to rule or escape subjection. Hence Periander advised
Thrasybulus " to cut off the tops of the tallest ears of corn,
meaning that he must always put out of the way the citizens
who overtop the rest. And so, as I have already intimated,
the beginnings of change are the same in monarchies as in
other forms of government ; subjects attack their sovereigns
out of fear or contempt, or because they have been unjustly
treated by them. And of injustice, the most common form

! I is insult, another is confiscation of property.

14 The ends sought by conspiracies against monarchies,
whether tyrannies or royalties, are the same as the ends
sought by conspiracies against other forms of government.

' Cp. iii. 14. § 7. * Cp. iii. 13, § 16.

The Overthrow of l^lonarchies 219

Monarchs have great wealth and honour which are objects of V. 10
desire to all mankind. The attacks are made sometimes
against their lives, sometimes against the office ; where the
sense of insult is the motive, against their lives. Any sort of 15
ijnsult (and there are many) may stir up anger, and when men ■
are angry, they commonly act out of revenge, and not from \
ambition. For example, the attempt made upon the Peisis-
tratidae arose out of the public dishonour offered to the sister
of Harmodius and the insult to himself. He attacked the
tyrant for his sister's sake, and Aristogeiton joined in the
attack for the sake of Harmodius. A conspiracy was also 16
formed against Periander, the tyrant of Ambracia, because,
when drinking with a favourite youth, he asked him whether 1311 b
by this time he was not with child by him. Philip, too, was
attacked by Pausanias because he permitted him to be insulted
by Attalus and his friends, and Amyntas the little, by Derdas,
because he boasted of having enjoyed his youth. Evagoras of
Cyprus, again, was slain by the eunuch to revenge an insult ;
for his wife had been carried off by Evagoras' son. Many 17
conspiracies have originated in shameful attempts made by
sovereigns on the persons of their subjects. Such was the
attack of Crataeus upon Archelaus ; he had always hated the
connexion with him, and so, when Archelaus, having promised
him one of his two daughters in marriage, did not give him
either of them, but broke his word and married the elder to
the king of Elymaea, when he was hard pressed in a war
against Sirrhas and Arrhibaeus, and the younger to his own
son Amyntas, under the idea that he would then be less likely
to quarrel with the son of Cleopatra — Crataeus made this
slight a pretext for attacking Archelaus, though even a less
reason would have sufficed, for the real cause of the estrange-

2 20 The Overthrow of Monarchies

V. 10 ment was the disgust which he felt at his connexion with the

1 8 king. And from a hke motive Hellanocrates of Larissa con-
spired with him ; for when Archelaus, who was his lover, did
not fulfil his promise of restoring him to his country, he
thought that the connexion between them had originated, not
in affection, but in the wantonness of power. Parrhon, too,
and Heracleides of Aenos, slew Cotys in order to avenge
their father, and Adamas revolted from Cotys in revenge foi
the wanton outrage which he had committed in mutilating him
when a child.

19 ^ Many, too, irritated at blows inflicted on the person which
they deemed an insult, have either killed or attempted to kill
officers of state and royal princes by whom they have been
injured ^ Thus, at Mitylene, Megacles and his friends
attacked and slew the Penthalidae, as they were going about
and striking people with clubs. At a later date Smerdis, who
had been beaten and torn away from his wife by Penthilus,

20 slew him. In the conspiracy against Archelaus, Decamnichus
stimulated the fury of the assassins and led the attack ; he was
enraged because Archelaus had delivered him to Euripides to
be scourged ; for the poet had been irritated at some remark
made by Decamnichus on the foulness of his breath. Many
other examples might be cited of murders and conspiracies
which have arisen from similar causes.

^ 21 Fear is another motive which has caused conspiracies as

well in monarchies as in more popular forms of government.

I Thus Artapanes conspired against Xerxes and slew him,

fearing that he would be accused of hanging Darius against
his orders — he being under the impression that Xerxes would

' Or ; ' Many persons too, even of those connected with the govern-
ment or the royal family,' taking twv irepi, etc. with the subject.

caused by Insult^ Fear^ Contempt 221

forget what he had said in the middle of a meal, and that the V. 10
offence would be foroiven.

1 O 1 .7 T

Another motive is contempt, as in the case of Sardanapulus, ,3 "^ '
whom some one saw carding wool with his women, if the
story-tellers say truly ; and the tale may be true, if not of him,
of some one else \ Dion attacked the younger Dionysius 23
because he despised him, and saw that he was equally despised
by his own subjects, and that he was always drunk. Even
the friends of a tyrant will sometimes attack him out of con-
tempt ; for the confidence which he reposes in them breeds
contempt, and they think that they will not be found out.
The expectation of success is likewise a sort of contempt ; 24
the assailants are ready to strike, and think nothing of the
danger, because they seem to have the power in their hands.
Thus generals of armies attack monarchs ; as, for example,
Cyrus attacked Astyages, despising the effeminacy of his life,
and believing that his power was w^orn out. Thus, again,
Seuthes the Thracian conspired against Amadocus, whose
general he was.

And sometimes men are actuated by more than one motive, 25
like Mithridates, who conspired against Ariobarzanes, partly
out of contempt and partly from the love of gain.

Bold natures, placed by their sovereigns in a high military
position, are most likely to make the attempt in the expecta-
tion of success ; for courage is emboldened by power, and the
union of the two inspires them with the hope of an easy
victory.

Attempts of which the motive is ambition arise from other
causes. There are men who will not risk their lives in the 26
hope of gains and rewards however great, but who nevertheless
^ Cp. i. II. § 8.

222

Overthrow of ISdonarchies

^.

V. 10 regard the killing of a tyrant simply as an extraordinary action
vt which will make them famous and honourable in the world ;

27 they wish to acquire, not a kingdom, but a name. It is rare,
however, to find such men ; he who would kill a tyrant must

28 be prepared to lose his life if he fail. He must have the
resolution of Dion, who, when he made war upon Dionysius,
took with him very few troops, saying, ' that whatever measure
of success he might attain would be enough for him, even if
he were to die the moment he landed ; such a death would be
welcome to him.' But this is a temper to which few can
attain.

29 Once more, tyrannies, like all other governments, are
1312 b destroyed from without by some opposite and more powerful

form of government. That such a government will have the
will to attack them is clear ; for the two are opposed in

30 principle ; and all men, if they can, do what they will.
Democracy is also antagonistic to tyranny, on the principle of
Hesiod, ' Potter hates Potter,' because they are nearly akin,
for the extreme form of democracy is tyranny , and royalty
and aristocracy are both alike opposed to tyranny, because
they are constitutions of a different type. And therefore the
Lacedaemonians put down most of the tyrannies, and so
did the Syracusans during the time when they were well
governed.

31 Again, tyrannies are destroyed from within, when the
^\ reigning family are divided among themselves, as that of

i Gelo was, and more recently that of Dionysius ; in the case of

Gelo because Thrasybulus, the brother of Hiero, flattered the
son of Gelo and led him into excesses in order that he might
rule in his name. Whereupon the family conspired to get rid
of Thrasybulus and save the tyranny ; but the party who con-

Especially of Tyrannies 223

spired ^ with them seized the opportunity and drove them all V. 10
out. In the case of Dionysius, Dion, his own relative, 32
attacked and expelled him with the assistance of the people ;
he afterwards perished himself.

There are two chief motives which induce men to attack »
tyrannies — hatred and ^contempt. Hatred of tyrants is i
inevitable, and contempt is also a frequent cause of their
destruction. Thus we see that most of those who have 33
acquired, have retained their power, but those who have
inherited ^, have lost it, almost at once ; for living in luxurious
ease, they have become contemptible, and offer many oppor-
tunities to their assailants. Anger, too, must be included
under hatred, and produces the same effects. It is oftentimes 34
even more ready to strike — the angry are more impetuous in
making an attack, for they do not listen to reason. And men '
are very apt to give way to their passions when they are
insulted. To this cause is to be attributed the fall of the
Peisistratidae and of many others. Hatred is more reasonable, 35
but anger is accompanied by pain, which is an impediment to i
reason, whereas hatred is painless ^

In a word, all the causes which I have mentioned as
destroying the last and most unmixed form of oligarchy, and
the extreme form of democracy, may be assumed to affect
tyranny ; indeed the extreme forms of botli are only tyrannies
distributed among several persons. Kingly rule is little 36
affected by external causes, and is, therefore, lasting ; it is
generally destroyed from within. And there are two ways 1
in which the destruction may come about; (i) when the 1313 a i

* Omitting KaT inserted by Bekker in 2nd ed.
' Cp. Plato, Laws, iii. 695.
^ Cp. Rhetoric, ii. 4. § 31,

2 24 Overthrorv of Monarchies

V. 10 members of the royal family quarrel among themselves, and
•> /© when the kings attempt to administer the state too much

37 after the fashion of a tyranny, and to extend their authority
contrary to the law. There are now no royalties ; monarchies,
where they exist, are^^ tyrannies. For the rule of a king is
over voluntary subjects, and he is supreme in all important
matters ; but in our own day men are more upon an equality,
and no one is so immeasurably superior to others as to repre-
sent adequately the greatness and dignity of the office. Hence
mankind will not, if they can help, endure it, and any one who
obtains power by force or fiaud is at once thought to be

38 a tyrant. In hereditary monarchies a further cause of destruc-
tion is the fact that kings often fall into contempt, and,
although possessing not tyrannical but only royal power, are
apt to outrage others. Their overthrow is then readily

I effected ; for there is an end to the king when his subjects
do not want to have him, but the tyrant lasts, whether they
like him or not.

The destmction of monarchies is to be attributed to these
_ X i and the like causes.
'^^'^pyJ ^^ ii And they are preserved, to speak generally, by the opposite
hi *v causes; or, if we consider them separately, (l)joyalty is

»?*»»0**ee> pi-eserved by the limitation of its powers. The more re-
stricted the functions of kings, the longer their power will last
unimpaired ; for then they are more moderate and not so
despotic in their ways ; and they are less envied by their
I 2 subjects. This is the reason why the kingly office has lasted

so long among the Molossians. And for a similar reason it
has continued among the Lacedaemonians, because there it
was always divided between two, and afterwards further
' Omitting Kai with Bekker's and ed.

Preservation of "Monarchies 225"

limited by Theopompus in various respects, more particularly V. 11
by the establishment of the Ephoralty. He diminished the
power of the kings, but established on a more lasting basis
the kingly office, which was thus made in a certain sense not
less, but greater. There is a story that when his wife once 3
asked him whether he was not ashamed to leave to his sons
a royal power which was less than he had inherited from his
father, he replied, ' No indeed, for the power which I leave
to them will be more lasting.'

As to (2) tyrannies, they are preserved in two most 4
opposite ways. One of them is the old traditional method in
which most tyrants administer their government. Of such
arts Periander of Corinth is said to have been the great
master, and many similar devices may be gathered from the
Persians in the administration of their government. There 5
are also the ancient prescriptions for the preservation of
a tyranny, in so far as this is possible ; viz. that the tyrant
should lop off those who are too high ; he must put to death
men of spirit : he must not allow common meals, clubs,
education, and the like ; he must be upon his guard against 1313 b
anything which is likely to inspire either courage or confidence
among his subjects ; he must prohibit literary assemblies or <
other meetings for discussion, and he must take every means
to prevent people from knowing one another (for acquaintance
begets mutual confidence). Further, he must compel the 6
inhabitants to appear in public and live ^ at his gates •* ; then
he will know what they are doing ; if they are always kept
under, they will learn to be humble. In short, he should
practise these and the like Persian and barbaric arts which all
have the same object. A tyrant should also endeavour to 7
' Or, 'at their doors.'

DAVIS Q

s>

2 25 The Devices of Tyra7iny

11 know what each of his subjects says or does, and should
employ spies, like the ' female detectives ' at Syracuse, and
the eavesdroppers whom Hiero was in the habit of sending to
any place of resort or meeting ; for the fear of informers
prevents people from speaking their minds, and if they do,

8 they are more easily found out. Another^ art of the tyrant is
to sow quarrels among the citizens ; friends should be
embroiled with friends, the people with the notables, and the
rich with one another. Also he should impoverish his
subjects ; he thus provides money for the support of his
guards ■", and the people, having to keep hard at work, are

9 prevented from conspiring. The Pyramids of Egypt afford
-* an example of this policy ; also the offerings of the family of

Cypselus, and the building of the temple of Olympian Zeus
by the Peisistratidae, and the great Polycratean monuments at
Samos ; all these works were alike intended to occupy the
lo people and keep them poor. Another practice of tyrants is
to multiply taxes, after the manner of Dionysius at Syracuse,
I who contrived that within five years his subjects should bring
into the treasury their whole property. The tyrant is also
fond of making war in order that his subjects may have some-
thing to do and be always in want of a leader. And whereas
the power of a king is preserved by his friends, the character-
istic of a tyrant is to distrust his friends, because he knows
that all men want to overthrow him, and they above all have
the power '^.

^ Reading fj re with Bekker's 2nd ed.

* This, which is probably the meaning of the passage, cannot be
elicited from the text as it stands. The addition is reijuired of some
such phrase as avrhv naOiXfiv, which is not wholly without mj^nuscript
authoiity.

The Ways of Tyranny and oflyr ants 227

Again, the evil practices of the last and worst forms of V. 11 l
democracy are all found in tyrannies. Such are the power 1 1 < *

given to women in their families in the hope that they will
inform against their husbands, and the licence which is allowed
to slaves in order that they may betray their masters ; fpr
slaves and women dp not conspire against tyrants ; and they
are of course friendly to tyrannies and also to democracies,
since under them they have a good time. For the people too
would fain be a monarch, and therefore by them, as well as by 1 2
the tyrant, the flatterer is held in honour ; in democracies he
is the demagogue ; and the tyrant also has his humble com-
panions who flatter him. 1314 a /^^/t* ^

Hence tyrants are always fond of bad men, because they (Li^tty^ .'
love to be flattered, but no man who has the spirit of a free- / ^

man in him will demean himself by flattery ; good men love
others, but they do not flatter anybody. Moreover the bad 13
are useful for bad purposes; 'nail knocks out nail,' as the
proverb says. It is characteristic of a tyrant to dislike every JJ ,

one who has dignity or independence ; he wants to be alone in
his glory, but any one who claims a like dignity or asserts his
independence encroaches upon his prerogative, and is hated by
him as an enemy to his power. Another mark of a tyrant is 14 >»

that he likes foreigners better than citizens, and lives with
them and invites them to his table ; for the one are enemies,
but the others enter into no rivalry with him.

Such are the notes of the tyrant and the arts by which he
preserves his power ; there is no wickedness too great for him.
All that we have said may be summed up under three heads, hxii^^lo

which answer to the three aims of the tyrant. These are, 15
(l) the humiliation of his subjects; he knows that a mean-
spirited man will not conspire against anybody: (2) the crea-
Q 3

/ r

2 2.8 Preservation of Tyranny

V. 11 tion of mistrust among tliem ; for a tyrant is not overthrown
until men begin to have confidence in one another ; and this
is the reason why tyrants are at war with the good ; they are
under the idea that their power is endangered by them, not
only because they will not be ruled despotically, but also
because they are loyal to one another, and to other men, and
do not inform against one another or against other men :

1 6 (3) the tyrant desires that his subjects shall be incapable of
action, for no one attempts what is impossible, and they will
not attempt to overthrow a tyranny, if they are powerless.
Under these three heads the whole policy of a tyrant may be
summed up, and to one or other of them all his ideas may be
referred: (l) he sows distrust among his subjects; (2) he
t^kes away their power ; (3) he humbles them.
"TT 17 This then is one of the two methods by which tyrannies

are preserved ; and there is another which proceeds upon

iS a different principle of action. The nature of this latter
method may be gathered from a comparison of the causes
which destroy kingdoms, for as one mode of destroying
kingly power is to make the office of king more tyrannical, so

j<- the salvation of a tyranny is to make it more like the rule of
I a king. But of one thing the tyrant must be careful ; he

.■^ must keep power enough to rule over his subjects, whether
they like him or not, for if he once gives this up he gives up

19 his tyranny. But though power must be retained as the
foundation, in all else the tyrant should act or appear to act in
1314 b the character of a king. In the first place he should pretend
I . a care of tlie public revenues, and not waste money in making

presents of a sort at which the common people get excited
when they see their miserable earnings taken from them and
lavished on courtesans and strangers and artists. He should

The Beneficent Despot 229

give an account of what he receives and of what he spends V. 11 » •

(a practice which has been adopted by some tyrants) ; for

then he will seem to be the manager of a household rather

than a tyrant ; nor need he fear that, while he is the lord of 20

the city, he will ever be in want of money. Such a policy is

much more advantageous for the tyrant when he goes from

home, than to leave behind him a hoard, for then the garrison

who remain in the city will be less likely to attack his power ;

and a tyrant, when he is absent from home, has more reason

to fear the guardians of his treasure than the citizens, for the

one accompany him, but the others remain behind. In the 21

second place, he should appear to collect taxes and to require "^ •

public services only for state purposes ; and that he may form

a fund in case of war, he ought to make himself the guardian

and treasurer of them, as if they belonged, not to him, but to

the public. He should appear, not harsh, but dignified, and f

when men meet him they should look upon him with reverence,

and not with fear. Yet it is hard for him to be respected it 22

he inspires no respect, and therefore whatever virtues he may

neglect, at least he should maintain the character of a states- /

man, and produce the impression that he is one. Neither he

nor any of his associates should ever be guilty of the least

offence against modesty towards the young of either sex who

are his subjects, and the women of his family should observe 23 5!

a like self-control towards other women ; the insolence of

women has ruined many tyrannies. In the indulgence of

pleasures he should be the opposite of our modern tyrants, y »

who not only begin at dawn and pass whole days in sensuality,

but want other men to see them, that they may admire their

happy and blessed lot. In these things a tyrant should be 24

especially moderate, or at any rate should not parade his \ices

230 Preservation of Tyranny

V. 11 to the world ; for a drunken and drowsy tyrant is soon

despised and attacked ; not so he who is temperate and wide

awake. His conduct should be the very reverse of nearly

everything which has been said before about tyrants. He

J7» ought to adorn and improve his city, as though he were not

25 a tyrant, but the guardian of the state. Also he should
1315 a appear to be particularly earnest in the service of the Gods ;

for if men think that a ruler is religious and has a reverence
for the Gods, they are less afraid of suffering injustice at his
hands, and they are less disposed to conspire against him,
because they believe him to have the veiy Gods fighting on

26 his side. At the same time his religion must not be thought
foolish. And he should honour men of merit, and make
them think that they would not be held in more honour by
the citizens if they had a free government. The honour he
should distribute himself, but the punishment should be in-

27 flicted by officers and courts of law. It is a precaution which
is taken by all monarchs not to make one person great ; but if
one, then two or more should be raised, that they may look
sharply after one another. If after all some one has to be
made great, he should not be a man of bold spirit ; for such
dispositions are ever most inclined to strike. And if any one
is to be deprived of liis power, let it be diminished gradually,

to ■ 28 not taken from him all at once^. The tyrant should abstain
from all outrage ; in particular from personal violence and
from wanton conduct towards the young. He should be
especially careful of his behaviour to men who are lovers of
honour ; for as the lovers of money are offended when their
property is touched, so are the lovers of honour and the
29 virtuous when their honour is affected. Therefore a tyrant
' Cp. c. 8. § 12.

The Beneficent Despot 231

ought either not to use force at all, or he should be thought V. 11
only to employ fatherly correction, and not to trample upon
others ; and his acquaintance with youth should be supposed
to arise from affection, and not from the insolence of power,
and in general he should compensate the appearance of dis-
honour by the increase of honour.

Of those who attempt assassination they are the most 30
dangerous, and require to be most carefully watched who doi
not care to survive, if they effect their purpose. Therefore 31
special precaution should be taken about any who think that
either they or their relatives have been insulted ; for when
men are led away by pnssion to assault others they are regard-
less of themselves. As Heracleitus says, ' It is difficult to
fight against anger ; for a man will buy revenge with life ^.'

And whereas states consist of two classes, of poor men 32
and of rich, the tyrant should lead both to imagine that they
are preserved and prevented from harming one another by his
rule, and whichever of the two is stronger he should attach
to his government ; for, having this advantage, he has no
need either to emancipate slaves or to disarm the citizens ;
either party added to the force which he already has, will
make him stronger than his assailants.

But enough of these details ; — what should be the general 33
policy of the tyrant is obvious. He ought to show himself tcs*
his subjects in the light, not of a tyrant, but of the master of I
a household and of a king. He should not appropriate what 1:315 b
is theirs, but should be their guardian ; he should be moderate, 1
not extravagant in his way of life ; he should be the com- '
panion of the notables, and the hero of the multitude. For '34
then his rule will of necessity be nobler and happier, because
' Fragm. 69 (ed. MuIIach).

232 Short Duration of Tyrannies

V. lljhe will rule over better men' whose spirits are not crushed,
\over men to whom he himself is not an object of hatred, and
'of whom he is not afraid. His power too will be more
lasting. Let his disposition be virtuous, or at least half
'■■ virtuous ; and if he must be wicked, let him be half wicked
only.
12 Yet no forms of government are so short-lived as oligarchy
*; and tyranny. The tyranny which lasted longest was that of
Orthagoras and his sons at Sicyon ; this continued for a hun-
dred years. The reason was that they treated their subjects
with moderation, and to a great extent observed the laws ;
and in various ways gained the favour of the people by the
care which they took of them. Cleisthenes, in particular,

2 was respected for his military ability. If report may be
believed, he crowned the judge who decided against him in
the games ; and, as some say, the sitting statue in the Agora
of Sicyon is the likeness of this person. A similar story is
told of Peisistratus, who is said on one occasion to have
allowed himself to be summoned and tried before the Areo-
pagus.

3 Next in duration to the tyranny of Orthagoras was that of
the Cypselidae at Corinth, which lasted seventy-three years
and six months : Cypselus reigned thirty years, Periander
forty-four, and Psammetichus the son of Gordius three.

4 Their continuance was due to similar causes : Cypselus was
a popular man, who during the whole time of his rule never
had a body-guard ; and Periander, although he was a tyrant,

5 was a great soldier. Third in duration was the rule of the
Peisistratidae at Athens, but it was interrupted ; for Peisis-
tratus was twice driven out, so that during three-and-thirty

• Cp. i. 5. § 3.

Criticism of Via to 253

years he reigned only seventeen ; and his sons reigned V. 12
eighteen — altogether thirty-five years. Of other tyrannies,
that of Hiero and Gelo at Syracuse was the most lasting.
Even this, however, was short, not more than eighteen years 6
in all ; for Gelo continued tyrant for seven years, and died in
the eighth ; Hiero reigned for ten years, and Thrasybulus
was driven out in the eleventh month. In fact, tyrannies
generally have been of quite short duration.

I have now gone through all the causes by which consti- 7
tutional governments and monarchies are either destroyed or 1316 a
preserved.

In the Republic of Plato ^, Socrates treats of revolutions,
but not well, for he mentions no cause of change which
peculiarly affects the first or perfect state. He only says 8
that nothing is abiding, but that all things change in a certain
cycle ; and that the origin of the change is a base of numbers
which are in the ratio of four to three, and this when com-
bined with a figure of five gives two harmonies — (he means
when the number of this figure becomes solid) ; he conceives
that nature will then produce bad men who will not submit '^
to education ; in which latter particular he may very likely
be not far wrong, for there may well be some men who \
cannot be educated and made virtuous. But why is such 9
a cause of change peculiar to his ideal state, and not rather
common to all states, nay to everything which comes into
being at all ? ''■ Or how is the state specially changed by
the agency of time, which, as he declares, makes all things
change ? And things which did not begin together, change
together ^, for example, if something has come into being the

^ Rep. viii, 546.

" Plating a note of interrogation after niraPdWeiv, Or : • And

234 Criticism of Plato

V. 12 day before the completion of the cycle, it will change with it.
^ ^ Further, wliy should the perfect state change into the Spartan ?

10 for governments more often take an opposite form than
one akin to them. The same remark is applicable to the
other changes ; he says that the Spartan constitution changes

jinto an oligarchy, and this into a democracy, and this again

1 1 into a tyranny. And yet the contrary happens quite as often ;
for a democracy is even more likely to change into an oligarchy

^ than into a monarchy. Further, he never says whether

tyranny is, or is not, liable to revolutions, and if it is, what
is the cause of them, or into what form it changes. And
the reason is, that he could not very well have told : for there
is no rule ; according to him it should revert to the first and

12 best, and then there would be a complete cycle. But in point
of fact a tyranny often changes into a tyranny, as that at
Sicyon changed from the tyranny of Myron into that of
Cleisthenes ; into oligarchy, as the tyranny of Antileon did at
Chalcis ; into democracy, as that of Gelo did at Syracuse ;
into aristocracy, as at Carthage, and the tyranny of Charilaus

13 at Lacedaemon. Often an oligarchy changes into a tyranny,
like most of the ancient oligarchies in Sicily; for example,
the oligarchy at Lcontini changed into the tyranny of Panae-
tius ; that at Gela into the tyranny of Cleander ; that at
Rhegium into the tyranny of Anaxilaus ; the same thing has

14 happened in many other states. And it is absurd to suppose
that the state changes into oligarchy merely because [as Plato

in the period of time which, as he saj's, makes all things change, things
which did not begin together change together.'

Bekker in his 2nd edition has altered the reading of the MSS. Sja -n
rov xpovov to 5ia ye rdv xpovov. The rendering of the text agrees
with either reading ; that of the note with the reading of the MSS. only.

^.

Criticism of Plato 235-

says '] the ruling class are lovers and makers of money, V. 12
and not because the very rich think it unfair that the very poor 1316 b
should have an equal share in the government with themselves.
Moreover, in many oligarchies there are laws against making
money in trade. But at Carthage, which is a democracy,
there is no such prohibition ; and yet to this day the Cartha-
ginians have never had a revolution. _I^t is absurd too for him 15 ^
to say that an oligarchy is two cities, one of the rich, and the 0 »

other of the poor". Is not this just as much the case in the
Spartan constitution, or in any other in which either all do
not possess equal property, or in which all are not equally
good men ? Nobody need be any poorer than he was before, 16
and yet the oligarchy may change all the same into a demo-
cracy, if the poor form the majority ; and a democracy may
change into an oligarchy, if the wealthy class are stronger
than the people, and the one are energetic, the other in-
different. Once more, although the causes of revolutions are 17 ^
very numerous, he mentions only one^, which is, that the
citizens become poor through dissipation and debt, as though
he thought that all, or the majority of them, were originally
rich. This is not true : though it is true that when any
of the leaders lose their property they are ripe for revolution ;
but, when anybody else, it is no great matter. And an iS
oligarchy does not more often pass into a democracy than into
any other form of goveinment. Again, if men are deprived
of the honours of' state, and are wronged, and insulted, they
make revolutions, and change forms of government, even
although they have not wasted their substance because they

' Rep. viii. 550 E. * Rep. viii. 551 D.

' Rep. viii. 555 D.

2 3 <5 Criticism of Plato

12 might do what they liked — of which extravagance he declares
excessive freedom to be the cause '.

Finally, although there are many forms of oligarchies and
democracies, Socrates speaks of their revolutions as though
there were only one form of either of them.

' Rep. viii. 564.

BOOK VI Q If- 1^

We have now considered the varieties of the deliberative VI. 1
or supreme power in states, and the various arrangements of
law-courts and state offices, and which of them are adapted
to different forms of government ^. We have also spoken of
the destruction and pieservation of states, how and from what
causes they arise ".

Of democracy and all other forms of govei'nment there are 2
many kinds ; and it will be well to assign to them severally
the modes of organization which are proper and advantageous
to each, adding what remains to be said about them. More- 7,
over, we ought to consider the various combinations of these
modes themselves ^ ; for such combinations make constitutions
overlap one another, so that aristocracies have an oligarchical
character, and constitutional governments incline to demo-
cracies *.

When I speak of the combinations which remain to be 4
considered, and thus far have not been considered by us,
I mean such as these: — when the deliberative part of the
government and the election of officers is constituted oligar-
chically, and the law-courts aristocratically, or when the
courts and the deliberative part of the state are oligarchical,
and the election to offices aristocratical, or when in any other
way there is a want of harmony in the composition of a state.

I have shown already what forms of democracy are suited 5

» Bk. iv. 14-16. 2 Bk. V.

3 Cp. Bk. iv. 7-9. < Cp. iv. S. § 3.

238 The Elpments of Democracy

VI. 1 to particular cities, and what of oligarchy to particular peoples,
and to whom each of the other forms of government is suited.

6 Further, we must not only show which of these governments
is the best for each state, but also briefly proceed to con-
sider^ how these and other forms of government are to
be established.

First of all let us speak of democracy, which will also
bring to light the opposite form of government commonly

7 called oligarchy. For the purposes of this enquiry we need
to ascertain all the elements and characteristics of democracy,
since from the combinations of these the varieties of demo-

8 cratic government arise. There are several of these differing
from each other, and the difference is due to two causes.
One (l) has been already mentioned" — differences of popu-

I lation ; for the popular element may consist of husbandmen,
or of mechanics, or of labourers, and if the first of these
be added to the second, or the third to the two others,
not only does the democracy become better or worse, but its

9 very nature is changed. A second cause (2) remains to
be mentioned : the various properties and characteristics of

! democracy, when variously combined, make a difference.
For one democracy will have less and another will have more,
and another will have all of these characteristics. There
is an advantage in knowing them all, whether a man wishes
to establish some new form of democracy, or only to remodel
10 an existing one '. Founders of states try to bring together
all the elements which accord with the ideas of the several
constitutions ; but this is a mistake of theirs, as I have already
remarked ^ when speaking of the destruction and preservation

* Cp. iv. 2. § 5. * Cp. iv. 4. § 21,

s Cp. iv. I. § 7. ■♦ V. 9. § 7.

The Nature of Democracy 239

of states. We will now set forth the requirements, ethical VI. 1
character, and aims of such states.

The basis of a democratic state is liberty ; which, according 2
to the common opinion of men, can only be enjoyed in such 1317 b
a state — this they affirm to be the great end of every demo- K^p^ u ii"
cracy '. One principle of liberty is for all to rule and be 2
ruled in turn, and indeed democratic justice is the application •

of numerical not proportionate equality; whence it follows
that the majority must be supreme, and that whatever the
majority approve must be the end and the just. Every citizen,
it is said, must have equality, and therefore in a democracy
the poor have more power than the rich, because there are
more of them, and the will of the majority is supreme. This, 3
then, is one note of liberty which all democrats affirm to
be the principle of their state. Another is that a man should X •

live as he likes ^. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman ;
and, on the other hand, not to live as a man likes is the mark
of a slave. This is the second characteristic of democracy, 4
whence has arisen the claim of men to be ruled by none,
if possible, or, if this is impossible, to rule and be ruled
in turns ; and so it coincides with the freedom based upon

equality [which was the first characteristic].

of de- ^CkoAe^ei*^^/^^ (3

^ Such being our foundation and such the nature
mocracv, its characteristics are as follows ^ : — the election ^-/w C/*t«tA^
of officers by all out of all: ar^d^ that all should rule overt ,

Mii^MMMMiiJ— '<li'Hi"i.»"'rii»i»»r-:»^^ :■'■■' I |,

eadij^ and each in his turn over all ; that the appointment !
to all offices, or to all but those which require experience and

' Cp. Plato Rep. viii. 557 foil. * Cp. v. 9. § 15.

' Or (taking dpxr) in the sense of 'beginning'), 'Such being our
foundation, and such being the principle from which we start, the
characteristics of democracy are as follows.'

240 The Characteristics of Democracy

VI. 2 skill ', should be made by lot ; that no property qualification
should be required for offices, or only a very low one ; that
no one should hold the same office twice, or not often, except
in the case of military offices ; that the tenure of all offices,
or of as many as possible, should be brief; that all men
should sit in judgment, or that judges selected out of all should
judge in all matters, or in most, or in the greatest and most
important — such as the scrutiny of accounts, the constitution,
and private contracts ; tliat the assembly should be supreme
over all causes, or at any rate over the most important, and

6 the magistrates over none or only over a very few '^. Of all
institutions, a council is the most democratic ' when there is
not the means of paying all the citizens, but when they are
paid even this is robbed of its power ; for the people then
draw all cases to themselves, as I said in the previous dis-
<^ 7 cussion *. The next characteristic of democracy is payment

for services ; assembly, law-courts, magistrates, everybody
receives pay, when it is to be had ; or when it is not to
be had for all, then it is given to the law-courts and to the
stated assemblies, to the council and to the magistrates, or at
least to any of them who are compelled to have their meals
together. And whereas oligarchy is characterized by birth,
» wealth, and education, the notes of democracy appear to be

Sjthe opposite of these — low birth, poverty, mean employment.

Another note is that no magistracy is perpetual, but if any

'' '■ 1318 a such have survived some ancient change in the constitution it

i should be stripped of its power, and the holders should be

elected by lot and no longer by vote. These are points

common to all democracies ; but democracy and demos in

' Cp. iv. 14. § 6. * See note.

' Cp. iv. 15. § II. * Cp. iv. 6. § 5.

Democratical Justice 241

their truest form are based upon the recognized principle of VI. 2
democratic justice, that all should count equally ; for equality,
implies that the rich should have no more share in the govern-|
ment than the poor ^, and should not be the only rulers, but
that all should rule equally according to their numbers ^. And
in this way men think that they will secure equality and
freedom in their state.

Next comes the question, How is this equality to be ob- 3
tained ? Is the qualification to be so distributed that five
hundred rich shall be equal to a thousand poor ? and shall we
give the thousand a power equal to that of the five hundred ?
or, if this is not to be the mode, ought we, still retaining the
same ratio, to take equal numbers from each and give them
the control of the elections ^ and of the courts ? — Which, a
according to the democratical notion, is the juster form of the
constitution — this or one based on numbers only ? Demo-
crats say that justice is that to which the majority agree,
oligarchs that to which the wealthier class ; in their opinion
the decision should be given according to the amount of
property. In both principles there is some inequality and 3
injustice. For if justice is the will of the few, any one
person who has more wealth than all the rest of his class put
together, ought, upon the oligarchical principle, to have the
sole power — but this would be tyranny ; or if justice is the
will of the majority, as I was before saying *, they will
unjustly confiscate the property of the wealthy minority. To 4

^ Transposing dnopovs and eviropovs, with Bekker's 2nd ed.
^ Cp. iv. 4. § 2 2.

^ Reading with Bekker's 2nd ed. alpiaeonv from conjecture for
Staipeaewv, which is the reading of the MSS. See note.
* Cp. iii. 10. § I.

DAVIS H

242 Democratical Justice

VI. 3 find a principle of equality in which they both agree we must
enquire into their respective ideas of justice.

Now they agree in saying that whatever is decided by the
majority of the citizens is to be deemed law. Granted : — but
not without some reserve ; since there are two classes out of
which a state is composed, — the poor and the rich, — that
is to be deemed law on which both or the greater part
of both agree ; and if they disagree, that which is approved
by the majority, that is by those who have the higher qualifi-

5 cation. For example, suppose that there are ten rich and
twenty poor, and some measure is approved by six of the rich
and is disapproved by fifteen of the poor, and the remaining
four of the rich join with the party of the poor, and the
remaining five of the poor with that of the rich ; in such
a case the will of those whose qualifications, when both sides

6 are added up, are the greatest, should prevail. If they turn
out to be equal, there is no greater difficulty than at present,
when, if the assembly or the courts are divided, recourse

1318 b is had to the lot, or to some similar expedient. But, although
it may be difficult in theory to know what is just and equal,
the practical difficulty of inducing those to forbear who can,
if they like, encroach, is far greater, for the weaker are
always asking for equality and justice, but the stronger ' care
for none of these things ^
4 Of the four kinds of democracy, as was said in the previous
discussion ^, the best is that which comes first in order ; it is
also the oldest of them all. I am speaking of them according
to the natural classification of their inhabitants. For the best
material of democracy is an agricultural population ' ; there is

^ Or, 'care nothing for the weaker.' ^ Cp. iv. 4. § 22.

' Cp. iv. 6. § 2.

The best l\ind of Democracy 243

no difficulty in forming a democracy where the mass of the VI. 4
people live by agriculture or tending of cattle. Being poor,; 2
they have no leisure, and therefore do not often attend th^
assembly, and not having the necessaries of life they are always
at work, and do not covet the property of others. Indeed,
they find their employment pleasanter than the cares of govern-
ment or office where no great gains can be made out of them,
for the many are more desirous of gain than of honour ^
A proof is that even the ancient tyrannies were patiently endured 3
by them, as they still endure oligarchies, if they are allowed
to work and are not deprived of their property ; for some of
them grow quickly rich and the others are well enough off.
Moreover they have the power of electing the magistrates
and calling them to account"; their ambition, if they have
any, is thus satisfied ; and in some democracies, although they
do not all share in the appointment of offices, except through
representatives elected in turn out of the whole people, as at
Mantinea, yet, if they have the power of deliberating, the
many are contented. Even this form of government may be 5
regarded as a democracy, and was such at Mantinea. Hence
it is both expedient and customary in such a democracy that
all should elect to offices, and conduct scrutinies, and sit in
the law-courts, but that the great offices should be filled up by
election and from persons having a qualification ; the greater
requiring a greater qualification, or, if there be no offices for
which a qualification is required, then those who are marked
out by special ability should be appointed. Under such a 6
form of government the citizens are sure to be governed well
(for the offices will always be held by the best persons ; the
people are willing enough to elect them and are not jealous of
1 iv. 13. § S. = Cp. li. 12. § 5.

R 2

2 44 The J^ri cultural Democracy

VI. 4 the good). The good and the notables will then be satisfied,
for they will not be governed by men who are their inferiors,
and the persons elected will rule justly, because others will call

7 them to account. Every man should be responsible to others,
nor should any one be allowed to do just as he pleases ; for
where absolute freedom is allowed there is nothing to restrain

1319 a the evil which is inherent in every man. But the principle of
responsibility secures that which is the greatest good in states ;
the right persons rule and are prevented from doing wrong,

8 and the people have their due. It is evident that this is the
best kind of democracy, and why? because the people are drawn
from a certain class. The ancient laws of many states which
aimed at making the people husbandmen were excellent. They
provided either that no one should possess more than a certain
quantity of land, or that, if he did, the land should not be
within a certain distance from the town or the acropolis.

9 Formerly in many states there was a law forbidding any one
to sell his original allotment of land ^. There is a similar law
attributed to Oxylus, which is to the effect that there should
be a certain portion of every man's property on which he could

10 not borrow money. A useful corrective to the evil of which
I am speaking would be the law of the Aphytaeans, who,
although they are numerous, and do not possess much land, are
all of them husbandmen. For their properties are reckoned in
the census, not entire, but only in such small portions ^ that
even the poor may have more than the amount required ^.

11 Next best to an agricultural, and in many respects similar,
are a pastoral people, who live by their flocks ; they are the

» Cp. ii. 7. § 7.

' Or, * that the qualification of the poor may exceed that of the
rich.'

The inferior K^nds of Democracy 245-

best trained of any for war, robust in body and able to camp VI. 4
out. The people of whom other democracies consist are far 1 2
inferior to them, for their life is inferior ; there is no room for
moral excellence in any of their employments, whether they
be mechanics or traders or labourers. Besides, people of this 1 3
class can readily come to the assembly, because they are con-
tinually moving about in the city and in the agora ; whereas
husbandmen are scattered over the country and do not meet,
or equally feel the want of assembling together. Where the 14
territory extends to a distance from the city, there is no
difficulty in making an excellent democracy or constitutional
government, for the people are compelled to settle in the
country ; and even if there is a town population the assembly
ought not to meet when the country people cannot come. We 15
have thus explained how the first and best form of democracy
should be constituted ; it is clear that the other or inferior
sorts will deviate in a regular order, and the population which 1319 b
is excluded will at each stage be of a lower kind.

The last form of democracy, that in which all share alike, is
one which cannot be borne by all states, and will not last long
unless well regulated by laws and customs. The more general
causes which tend to destroy this or other kinds of government
have now been pretty fully considered ^ In order to constitute 16
such a democracy and strengthen the people, the leaders have
been in the habit of including as many as they can, and making >
citizens not only of those who are legitimate, but even of the
illegitimate, and of those who have only one parent a citizen,
whether father or mother ^ ; for nothing of this sort comes
amiss to such a democracy. This is the way in which dema- 1 7
gogues proceed ; whereas the right thing would be to make
1 Cp. V. 5. "" Cp. iii. 5. § 7.

24<^ The Construction and

VI. 4 no more additions when the number of the commonalty exceeds
that of the notables or of the middle class, — beyond this not
to go. When in excess of this point the state becomes dis-
orderly, and the notables grow excited and impatient of the
democracy, as in the insurrection at Cyrene ; for no notice is
taken of a little evil, but when it increases it strikes the eye.

18 Measures like those which Cleisthenes-* passed when he wanted
to increase the power of the democracy at Athens, or such
as were taken by the founders of popular government at Cyrene,

19 are useful in the extieme form of democracy. Fresh tribes
and brotherhoods should be established ; the private rites of
families should be restricted and converted into public ones ;
in short, every contrivance should be adopted which will mingle
the citizens with one another and get rid of old connexions.

20 Again, the measures which are taken by tyrants appear all of
them to be democratic ; such, for instance, as the licence per-
mitted to slaves (which may be to a certain extent advantageous)
and also that of women and children, and the allowing every-
body to live as he likes ^. Such a government will have many
supporters, for most persons would rather live in a disorderly
than in a sober manner.

5 The mere establishment of a democracy is not the only or
principal business of the legislator, or of those who wish to
create such a state, for any state, however badly constituted,
may last one, two, or three days ; a {ax greater difficulty is the

2 preservation of it. The legislator should therefore endeavour to
have a firm foundation according to the principles already laid
down concerning the preservation and destruction of states^;
he should guard against the destructive elements, and should

' Cp. iii. 2. § 3; V. 3. § 5. "^ Cp. V. II. § II.

» Cp. Bk. V.

Preservation of Democracy 247

make laws, whether written or unwritten, which will contain VI. 5
all the preservatives of states. He must not think the truly 13-20 a
democratical or oligarchical measure to be -that which will give
the greatest amount of democracy or oligarchy, but that which
will make them last longest ^. The demagogues of our own 3
day often get property confiscated ^ in the law-courts in order
to please the people. But those who have the welfare of the
state at heart should counteract them, and make a law that the i.

property of the condemned which goes into the treasury should
not be public but sacred. Thus offenders will be as much
afraid, for they will be punished all the same, and the people,
having nothing to gain, will not be so ready to condemn the
accused. Care should also be taken that state trials are as 4
few as possible, and heavy penalties should be Inflicted on
those who bring groundless accusations ; for it is the practice
to indict, not members of the popular party, but the notables,
although the citizens ought to be all equally attached to the
state, or at any rate should not regard their rulers as enemies.

Now, since in the last and worst form of democracy the 5
citizens are very numerous, and can hardly be made to assemble
unless they are paid, and to pay them when there are no
revenues presses hardly upon the notables (for the money
must be obtained by a property-tax and confiscations and cor-
rupt practices of the courts, things which have before now
overthrown many democracies) ; where, I say, there are no
revenues, the government should hold few assemblies, and the
law-courts should consist of many persons, but sit for a few
days only. This system has two advantages : first, the rich 6
do not fear the expense, even although they are unpaid them-
selves when the poor are paid ; and secondly, causes are better
1 Cp.v. II. §§2, 3. " Cj.. V. 5. § 5.

248 A Patriotic Nobility

VI. 5 tried, for wealthy persons, although they do not like to be
j long absent from their own affairs, do not mind going for a few
7! days to the law-courts. Where there are revenues the dema-
gogues should not be allowed after their manner to distribute
the surplus ; the poor are always receiving and always wanting
more and more, for such help is like water poured into a leaky
cask. Yet the true friend of the people should see that they
be not too poor, for extreme poverty lowers the character of
I the democracy ; measures also should be taken which will
give them lasting prosperity ; and as this is equally the interest
of all classes, the proceeds of the public revenues should be
accumulated and disti^ibuted among them, if possible, in such
quantities as may enable them to purchase a little farm, or, at any

1320 b rate, make a beginning in trade and husbandry. And if this
9 benevolence cannot be extended to all, money should be dis-
tributed in turn according to tribes or other divisions, and in
the meantime the rich should pay the fee for the attendance of
the poor at the necessary assemblies ; and should in return be
excused from useless public services. By administering the
state in this spirit the Carthaginians retain the affections of the
people ; their policy is from time to time to send some of

10 them into their dependent towns, where they grow rich ^. It
is also worthy of a generous and sensible nobility to divide the
poor amongst them, and give them the means of going to work.
The example of the people of Tarentum is also well deserving
of imitation, for, by sharing the use of their own property with

1 1 the poor, they gain their good will ^. Moreover, they divide
all their offices into two classes, one-half of them being elected
by vote, the other by lot ; the latter, that the people may
participate in them, and the former, that the state may be better

1 Cp. ii. II. § 15. * Cp. ii. 5. § 8.

The variojts IQnds of Oligarchies 249

administered. A like result may be gained by dividing the VI. 5
same offices ^, so as to have two classes of magistrates, one
chosen by vote, the other by lot.

Enough has been said of the manner in which democracies 6
ought to be constituted.

From these considerations there v/ill be no difficulty in see-
ing what should be the constitution of oligarchies. We must
put together in our minds each form of oligarchy by reasoning
from its opposite, calculating the structure of each in relation
to that of the opposite democracy.

The first and best attempered of oligarchies is akin to a con- 2
stitutional government. In this there ought to be two standards \
of qualification ; the one high^ the other Iqy.- — the lower
qualifying for the humbler yet indispensable offices and the
higher for the superior ones. He who acquires the prescribed
qualification should have the rights of citizenship. The nature
of those admitted should be such as will make the entire 3
governing body stronger than those who are excluded, and the
new citizen should be always taken out of the better class of the
people. The principle, narrowed a little, gives another form
of oligarchy ; until at length we reach the most cliquish and
tyrannical of them all, answering to the extreme democracy,
which, being the worst, requires vigilance in proportion to its 4
badness. For as healthy bodies and ships well provided with
sailors may undergo many mishaps and survive them, whereas
sickly constitutions and rotten ill-manned ships are ruined by
the very least mistake, so do the worst forms of government 1321a
require the greatest care. The populousness of democracies 5
generally preserves them (for number is to democracy in the
place of justice based on proportion) ; whereas the preservation
^ Reading ttjs aiiTfjs apxfjs with Bekker's and ed.

tt

2fo Hoiv to Organize an Oligarchy

VI. 6 of an oligarchy clearly depends on an opposite principle, viz.
good order.

7 As there are four chief divisions of the common people —
husbandmen, mechanics, retail traders, labourers ; so also
there are four kinds of military forces — the cavalry, the heavy
infantry, the light-armed troops, the navy \ When the
country is adapted for cavalry, then a strong oligarchy is likely
to be established. For the security of the inhabitants depends
upon a force of this sort, and only rich men can afford to keep
horses. The second form of oligarchy prevails when there
are heavy infantry "^ ; for this service is better suited to the rich
X ' 2 than to the poor. But the light-armed and the naval element

are wholly democratic ; and nowadays, when they are so
numerous, if the two parties quarrel, the oligarchy are often
worsted by them in the struggle. A remedy for this state of
things may be found in the practice of generals who combine
a proper contingent of light-armed troops with cavalry and

3 heavy-armed. And this is the way in which the poor get the
better of the rich in civil contests ; being lightly armed, they
fight with advantage against cavalry and heavy infantry. An
oligarchy which raises such a force out of the lower classes
raises a power against itself. And therefore, since the ages
of the citizens vary and some are older and some younger, the
fathers should have their own sons, while they are still young,
tauglit the agile movements of light-armed troops ; and some,
when they grow up, should be selected out of the youth, and
yj^ 4 become light-armed warriors in reality. The oligarchy should

also yield a share in the government to the people, either, as I
said before, to those who have a property qualification ', or, as

* Cp. iv. 3. §§ 2, 3. ^ Rc:idiiiE; o-nX'iTriv with Bekker's 1st cd.

' Cp. c. 6. § 2.

T^he Necessary Offices of State 25-1

in the case of Thebes ', to those who have abstained for a VI. 7
certain number of years from mean employments, or, as at
Massaha, to men of merit who are selected for their worthi-
ness, whether [previously] citizens or not. The magistracies 5 j*
of the highest rank, which ought to be in the hands of the
governing body, should have expensive duties attached to them,
and then the people will not desire them and will take no
offence at the privileges of their rulers when they see that
they pay a heavy fine for their dignity. It is fitting also that 6
the magistrates on entering office should oifer magnificent
sacrifices or erect some public ediiice, and then the people who
participate in the entertainments, and like to see the city
decorated with votive offerings and buildings, will not desire
an alteration in tlie government, and the notables will have
memorials of their munificence. This, however, is anything 7
but the fashion of our modern oligarchs, who are as covetous
of gain as they are of honour ; oligarchies like theirs may be
well described as petty democracies. Enough of the manner 1321b
in which democracies and oligarchies should be organized.

Next in order follows the right distribution of offices, their 8
number, their nature, their duties, of which indeed we have
already spoken ^. No state can exist not having the necessary
offices, and no state can be well administered not having the
offices which tend to preserve harmony and good order. In 2
small states, as we have already remarked ^, there need not be
many of them, but in larger there must be a larger number,
and we should carefully consider which offices may properly "T^
be united and which separated.

First among necessary offices is that which has the care of 3 j ,

1 Cp. iii. 5. § 7. -Cp. iv. 15, QiCiJUt,

^ Cp. iv. 15. §§ 5-7.

2f2 Offices — the Criminal Executive

VI. 8 the market; a magistrate should be appointed to inspect con-
jtracts and to maintain order. For in every state there must
inevitably be buyers and sellers who will supply one another's
wants ; this is the readiest way to make a state self-sufficing
and so fulfil the purpose for which men come together into one
^ ^ 4 state ^. A second office of a similar kind undertakes the super:

vision and embellishment of public and private buildings, the
'maintaining and repairing of houses and roads, the prevention
lof disputes about boundaries and other concerns of a like nature.

5 This is commonly called the office of City-warden, and has
various departments, which, in more populous towns, are shared
among different persons, one, for example, taking charge of the

6 walls, another of the fountains, a third of harbours. JThere
-*' is another equally necessary office, and of a similar kind, having

to do with the same matters without the walls and in the
country : — the magistrates who hold this office are called
Wardens of the country, or Inspectors of the woods. Besides
^ these three there is a fourth office of receivers of taxes, who

have under their charge the revenue which they distribute
among the various departments ; these are called Receivers or
^ 7 Treasurers. Another officer registers all private contracts, and

•^ • decisions of the courts, all public indictments, and also all

preliminary proceedings. This office again is sometimes sub-
divided, in which case one officer is appointed over all the- rest.
These officers are called Recorders or Sacred Recorders,
Presidents, and the like.
/ 8 Next to these comes an office of which the duties are the

most necessary and also the most difficult, viz. that to which

is committed the execution of punishments, or the exaction of

* .. -

» Cp. i. 2. § 8 ; Nic. Eth. v. 6. § 4; PI. Rep. ii. 369.

offices Militarv and Civil 25-3

fines from those who are posted up according to the registers ; VI. 8
and also the custody of prisoners. The difficulty of this office ^^^^ ^
arises out of the odium which is attached to it ; no one will
undertake it unless great profits are to be made, and any one who
does is loth to execute the law. Still the office is necessary ;
for judicial decisions are useless if they take no effect ; and if
society cannot exist without them, neither can it exist with-
out the execution of them. It is an office which, being so lo
unpopular, should not be entrusted to one person, but divided!
among several taken from different courts. In like manner
an effort should be made to distribute among different persons
the writing up of those who are registered as public debtors.
Some sentences should be executed by officers who have other
functions ; penalties for new offences should be exacted by new
offices ; and as regards those which are not new, when one
court has given judgment, another should exact the penalty ; for
example, the wardens of the city should exact the fines imposed
by the wardens of the agora, and others again should exact the
fines imposed by them. For penalties are more likely to be ii
exacted when less odium attaches to the exaction of them ;
but a double odium is incurred when the judges who have
passed also execute the sentence, and if they are always the
executioners, they will be the enemies of all.

In many places one magistracy has the custody of the
prisoners, while another executes the sentence, as, for example,
' the Eleven ' at Athens. It is well to separate off the jailor- 12
ship, and try by some device to render the office less unpopular.
For it is quite as necessary as that of the executioner ; but
good men do all they can to avoid it, and worthless persons
cannot safely be trusted with it ; for they themselves require a
guard, and are not fit to guard others. There ought not there- 13

hj

2 f 4 offices 'Military and Civil

VI. 8 fore to be a single or permanent officer set apart for this duty ;
but it should be entrusted to the young, wherever they are
organized into a band or guard, and different magistrates acting
T in turn should take charge of it.

These are the indispensable officers, and should be ranked
first : — next in order follow others, equally necessary, but of

14 higher rank, and requiring great experience and fidelity. Such
are the offices to which are committed the guard of the city,

I » and other military functions. Not only in time of war but of

peace their duty will be to defend the walls and gates, and to
muster and marshal the citizens. In some states there are
many such offices ; in others there are a few only, while small

15 states are content with one ; these officers are called generals
1322 b or commanders. Again, if a state has cavalry or light-armed

1 troops or archers or a naval force, it will sometimes happen
.'that each of these departments has separate officers, who are
called admirals, or generals of cavalry or of infantry. And
there are subordinate officers called naval and military captains,
and captains of horse ; having others under them : — all these

16 are included in the department of war. Thus much of military
command.

But since many, not to say all, of these offices handle the

^ * public money, there must of necessity be another office which

examines and audits them, and has no other functions. Such

officers are called by various names — Scrutineers, Auditors,

17 Accountants, Controllers. Besides all these offices there is
another which is supreme over them, and to this, which in a
democracy presides over the assembly, is often entrusted both
the introduction and the ratification of measures. For that
power which convenes the people must of necessity be the
head of the state. In some places they are called 'probuli,'

offices of J{eli(no}i — Summary zjj

because they hold previous deliberations, but in a democracy VI. 8
more commonly 'councillors^.' These are the chief political 18
offices.

Another set of officers is concerned with the maintenance PcnF t/stilS
of religion ; priests and guardians see to the preservation and
repair of the temples of the gods and to other matters of religion.
One office of this sort may be enough in small places, but in 119
larger ones there are a great many besides the priesthood ; for i
example, superintendents of sacrifices, guardians of shrines,
treasurers of the sacred revenues. Nearly connected with these 20
there are also the officers appointed for the performance of the
public sacrifices, except any which the law assigns to the
priests ; such officers derive their dignity from the public hearth
of the city. They are sometimes called archons, sometimes
kings ^, and sometimes prytanes.

These, then, are the necessary offices, which may be summed a i
up as follows : offices concerned with matters of religion, with
war, with the revenue and expenditure, with the market, with
the city, with _the harbours, with the country ; also with the
courts of law, with the records of contracts, with execution of
sentences, with custody of prisoners, with audits and scrutinies
and accounts of magistrates ; lastly, there are those which pre-
side over the public deliberations of the state. There are like- 22
wise magistracies characteristic of states which are peaceful
and prosperous, and at the same time have a regard to good
order : such as the offices of guardians of women, guardians of
the laws, guardians of children, and directors of gymnastics ;
also superintendents of gymnastic and Dionysiac contests, and 1323 ?
of other similar spectacles. Some of these aie clearly not 23
democratic offices ; for example, the guardianships of women
» Cp. iv. 15. § II. « Cp. iii. 14. § 14.

2y6 Summary

VI. 8 and children ^ — the poor, not having any slaves, must employ
both their women and children as servants.
24 Once more : there are three forms of the highest elective

I offices in states — guardians of the law, probuli, councillors, —
of these, the guardians of the law are an aristocratical, the
probuli an oligarcliical, the council a democratical institution.
Enough of the different kinds of offices.

' Cp. iv. 15. § 13.

BOOK VII

He who would duly enquire about the best form of a state VII. 1
ought first to determine which is the most eligible life ; while
this remains uncertain the best form of the state must also be
uncertain ; for, in the natural order of things, those may be
expected to lead the best life who are governed in the best
manner of which their circumstances admit. We ought there- 2
fore to ascertain, first of all, which is the most generally eligible
life, and then whether the same life is or is not best for the state
and for individuals.

Assuming that enough has been already said in exoteric
discourses concerning the best life, we will now only repeat
the statements contained in them. Certainly no one will dispute 3
the propriety of that partition of goods which separates them
into three classes \ viz. external goods, goods of the body,
and goods of the soul, or deny that the happy man must have
all three. For no one would maintain that he is happy who 4
has not in him a particle of courage or temperance or justice
or prudence, who is afraid of every insect which flutters past
him, and will commit any crime, however great, in order to
gratify his lust of meat or drink, who will sacrifice his dearest
friend for the sake of half a farthing, and is as feeble and false
in mind as a child or a madman. These propositions are 5
universally acknowledged as soon as they are uttered '^, but men

1 Cp. N. Eth. i. 8. § 2.

2 Omitting wffnfp, which is bracketed by Bekker in his second
edition.

2 5*8 Goods of Fortune, and Goods of the Soul

VII. 1 differ about the quantity which is desirable or the relative
superiority of this or that good. Some think that a very
moderate amount of virtue is enough, but set no limit to their
desires of wealth, property, power, reputation, and the like.

6 To whom we reply by an appeal to facts, which easily prove
I that mankind do not acquire or preserve virtue by the help of

1323 bl external goods, but external goods by the help of virtue, and
that happiness, whether consisting in pleasure or virtue, or
both, is more often found with those who are most highly
cultivated in their mind and in their character, and have only
a moderate share of external goods, than among those who
possess external goods to a useless extent hut are deficient in
I higher qualities ; and this is not only matter of experience, but,
if reflected upon, will easily appear to be in accordance with

7 reason. Foj-, whereas external goods have a limit, like any
other instrument \ and all things useful are of such a nature
that where there is too much of them they must either do harm,

'-or at any rate be of no use, to their possessors, every good of
the soul, the greater it is, is also of greater use, if the epithet

8 ' useful ' as well as ' noble ' is appropriate to such subjects. No
proof is required to show that the best state of one thing
in relation to another is proportioned to the degree of excel-
lence by which the natures corresponding to those states are
separated from each other : so that, if the soul is more noble
than our possessions or our bodies, both absolutely and in
relation to us, it must be admitted that the best state of either

9 has a similar ratio to the other. Again, it is for the sake of
the soul that goods external and goods of the body are eligible
at all, and all wise men ought to choose them for the sake of
the soul, and not the soul for the sake of them.

1 Cp. i. 8. § 15.

Virtue the Source of Happiness 2^9

Let us acknowledge then that each one has just so much of VII. 1
happiness as he has of virtue and wisdom, and of virtuous and °
wise action. God is a witness to us of this truth ^ ; for he
is happy and blessed, not by reason of any external good, but
in himself and by reason of his own nature. And herein of
necessity lies the difference between good fortune and happiness;
for external goods come of themselves, and chance is the author
of them, but no one is just or temperate by or through chance -.
In like manner, and by a similar train of argument, the happy ii
state may be shown to be that which is [morally] best and
which acts rightly ; and rightly it cannot act without doing "
right actions, and neither individual nor state can do right actions
without virtue and wisdom. Thus the courage, justice, and 12
wisdom of a state have the same form and nature as the
qualities which give the individual who possesses them the
name of just, wise, or temperate.

Thus much may suffice by way of preface: for I could not 13
avoid touching upon these questions, neither could I go through
all the arguments affecting them ; these must be reserved for
another discussion.

Let us assume then that the best life, both for individuals and
I states, is the life of virtue, having external goods enough for
' the performance of good actions. If there are any who con- ^^-^ *
trovert our assertion, we will in this treatise pass them over,
and consider their objections hereafter.

There remains to be discussed the question. Whether the 2
happiness of the individual is the same as that of the state, or
different ? Here again there can be no doubt — no one denies
that they are the same. For those who hold that the well-being 2

^ Cp. c. 3. § 10; N. Eth. X. 8. § 7 ; Met. xii. 7.

* Ethics i. 9. § 6.

S 2

26 o Is Contemplation hest^ or Action^

VII. 2 of the individual consists in his wealth, also think that riches
make the happiness of the whole state, and those who value
most highly the life of a tyrant deem that city the happiest
which rules over the greatest number ; while they who approve
an individual for his virtue say that the more virtuous a city

3 is, the happier it is. Two points here present themselves
for consideration : first (i), which is the more eligible life,

\ that of a citizen who is a member of a state, or that of an

' alien who has no political ties ; and again (2), which is the

best form of constitution or the best condition of a state, either

on the supposition that political privileges are given to all, or

4 that they are given to a majority only ? Since the good of the
state and not of the individual is the proper subject of political
thought and speculation, and we are engaged in a political dis-
cussion, while the first of these two points has a secondary
inteiest for us, the latter will be the main subject of our
enquiry.

5 Now it is evident that the form of government is best in
which every man, whoever he is, can act for the best and live
happily. But even those who agree in thinking that the life
of virtue is the most eligible raise a question, whether the life
of business and politics is or is not more eligible than one
which is wholly independent of external goods, I mean than
a contemplative life, which by some is maintained to be the

6 only one worthy of a pliilosopher. For these two lives — the
life of the philosopher and the life of the statesman — appear
to have been preferred by those who have been most keen in
the pursuit of virtue, both in our own and in other ages.
Which is the better is a question of no small moment ; for
the wise man, like the wise state, will necessarily regulate his

7 life according to the best end. There are some who think

The Policy of War and Oppression 2.6 \

that while a despotic rule over otheis is tlie greatest injustice, VII. 2
to exercise a constitutional rule over them, even though not
unjust, is a great impediment to a man's individual well-being.
Others take an opposite view ; they maintain that the true life
of man is the practical and political, and that every virtue admits
of being practised, quite as much by statesmen and rulers as
by private individuals. Others, again, are of opinion that g
arbitrary and tyrannical rule alone consists with happiness ;
indeed, * in some states the entire aim of the laws ^ is to give
men despotic power over their neighbours. And, therefore, 9
although in most cities the laws may be said generally to be in
a chaotic state, still, if they aim at anything, they aim at the
maintenance of power : thus in Lacedaemon and Crete the
system of education and the greater part of the laws are framed
with a view to war^. And in all nations which are able to 10
gratify their ambition military power is held in esteem, for ex-
ample among the Scythians and Persians and Thracians and
Celts. In some nations there are even laws tending to stimulate
the warlike virtues, as at Carthage, where we are told that men
obtain the honour of wearing as many armlets as they have served
\campaigns. There was once a law in Macedonia that he who 1 1
had not killed an enemy should wear a halter, and among tiie
Scythians no one who had not slain his man was allowed to
drink out of the cup which was handed round at a certain feast.
Among the Iberians, a warlike nation, the number of enemies
whom a man has slain is indicated by the number of spits which
are fixed in the earth round his tomb ; and there are numerous 1 2

^ Or, inserting kox before vv^av (apparently the reading of the old
translator), 'in some casts the entire aim both of the constitution and the
laws.'

2 Cp. Plato, Laws, i. 633 ff

262 War not the Supreme End

VII. 2 ])ractices among other nations of a like kind, some of them
established by law and others by custom. Yet to a reflecting
mind it must appear very strange that the statesman should be
always considering how he can dominate and tyrannize over

13 others, whether they will or not. How can that which
is not even lawful be the business of the statesman or the
legislator ? Unlawful it certainly is to rule without regard to
justice, for there may be might where there is no right.
The other arts and sciences offer no parallel ; a physiciaii
is not expected to persuade or coerce his patients, nor a pilot

14 the passengers in his ship. Yet many appear to think that
a despotic government is a true political form, and what men
affirm to be unjust and inexpedient in their own case they are
not ashamed of practising towards others ; they demand
justice for themselves, but where other men are concerned

15 they care nothing about it. Such behaviour is irrational;
unless the one party is born to command, and the other born
to serve, in which case men have a right to command, not
indeed all their fellows, but only those who are intended
to be subjects ; just as we ought not to hunt mankind,
whether for food or sacrifice, but only the animals which are
intended for food or sacrifice, that is to say, such wild

i6 animals as are eatable. And surely there may be a city
1325 a happy in isolation, which we will assume to be well-governed
(for it is quite possible that a city thus isolated might be well-
administered and have good laws) ; but such a city would
not be constituted with any view to war or the conquest of
17 enemies — all that sort of thing must be excluded. Hence
'**'we see very plainly that warlike pursuits, although generally
\to be deemed honourable, are not the supieme end of all
•things, but only means. And the good lawgiver should

The False and True Idea of a T{uler 263

enquire liov/ states and races of men and communities VII. 2

may participate In a good life, and in the happiness which is

attainable by them. His enactments will not be always the i8

same ; and where there are neighbours ' he will have to deal

with them according to their characters, and to see what

duties are to be performed towards each. The end at which

the best form of government should aim may be properly

made a matter of future consideration ^.

Let us now address those who, while they agree that the 3

life of virtue is the most eligible, differ about the manner

of practising it. For some renounce political power, and

think that the life of the freeman is different from the life of

the statesman and the best of all ; but others think the life

of the statesman best. The argument of the latter is that

he who does nothing cannot do well, and that virtuous

activity is identical with happiness. To both we say : ' you

are partly right and partly wrong.' The first class are right

in affirming that the life of the freeman is better than the

life of the despot ; for there is nothing grand or noble 2

in having the use of a slave, in so far as he is a slave ;

or in issuing commands about necessary things. But it is

an error to suppose that every sort of rule is despotic like ^

that of a master over slaves, for there is as great a difference

between the rule over freemen and the rule over slaves as

there is between slavery by nature and freedom by nature,

about which I have said enough at the commencement of

this treatise ^. And it is equally a mistake to place inac- 3

tivity above action, for happiness is activity, and the actions of

the just and wise are the realization of much that is noble.

1 Cp. ii. 6. § 7 ; 7. § 14. 2 Cp. c. 14.

3 Cp. i. c. 5, 6,7.

2^4 T^f^^ False and True Idea of a l\uler

VII. 3 But perhaps some one, accepting these premisses, may still
maintain that supreme power is the best of all things, because
the possessors of it are able to perform the greatest number

4 of noble actions. If so, the man who is able to rule,
instead of giving up anything to his neighbour, ought rather to
take away his power ; and the father should make no account
of his son, nor the son of his father, nor friend of friend ;
they should not bestow a thought on one another in com-
parison with this higher object, for the best is the most
eligible and ' doing well ' is the best. There might be some
1325 b truth in such a view if we assume that robbers and plunderers

6 attain the chief good. But this can never be ; and hence we
/infer the view to be false. For the actions of a ruler cannot
really be honourable, unless he is as much supeiior to other
men as a husband is to a wife, or a father to his children,
or a master to his slaves. And therefore he who violates
the law can never recover by any success, however great,
what he has already lost in departing from virtue. For
equals share alike in the honourable and the just, as is just

6 and equal. But that the unequal should be given to equals,
and the unlike to those who are like, is contrary to nature,
and nothing which is contrary to nature is good. If, there-
fore, there is any one ■* superior in virtue and in the power of
performing the best actions, him we ought to follow and

7 obejf^ but he must have the capacity for action as well as
virtue.

If we are riglit in our view, and happiness is assumed to

be virtuous activity, the active life will be the best, both for

S the city collectively, and for individuals. Not that a life

of action must necessarily have relations to othci-s, as some

' Cp. iii. 13. § 25, and 17. §7.

The Conditiotis of the Perfect State 2.6j

persons think, nor are those ideas only to be regarded VII. 3
as practical which are pursued for the sake of practical results,
but much more the thoughts and contemplations which are
independent and complete in themselves ; since virtuous
activity, and therefore action, is an end, and even in the case
of external actions the directing mind is most truly said
to act. Neither, again, is it necessary that states which are 9
cut off from others and choose to live alone should be inactive ;
for there may be activity also in the parts ; there are many
ways in which the members of a state act upon one another.
The same thing is equally true of every individual. If this 10
were otherwise, God and the universe, who have no external
actions over and above their own energies ', would be far enough
from perfection. Hence it is evident that the same life is
best for each individual, and for states, and for mankind
collectively.

Thus far by way of introduction. In what has preceded 4
I have discussed other forms of government ; in what
remains, the first point to be considered is what should be the
conditions of the ideal or perfect state ; for the perfect state 2
cannot exist without a due supply of the means of life. And
therefore we must presuppose many purely imaginary condi-
tions ^, but nothing impossible. There will be a certain
number of citizens, a country in which to place them, and the
like. As the weaver or shipbuilder or any other artisan 3
must have the material proper for his work (and in proportion 1326 a
as this is better piepared, so will the result of his art be
nobler), so the statesman or legislator must also have the
materials suited to him.

First among the materials required by the statesman is 4
' Cp. c. 1. § 10. 2 cp_ ii 6. § 7.

266 The Number of the Citizens

VII. 4 j opulation : he will consider what should be the number and
character of the citizens, and then what should be the size
and character of the country. Most persons think that a
state in order to be happy ouglit to be large ; but even if they
are right, they have no idea what is a large and what a small

5 state. For they judge of the size of the city by the number
of the inhabitants ; whereas they ought to regard, not their
number, but their power. A city too, like an individual, has
a work to do ; and that city which is best adapted to the
fulfilment of its work is to be deemed greatest, in the
same sense of the word great in which Hii:pocrates might be
called greater, not as a man, but as a physician, than some one

6 else who was taller. And even if we reckon greatness by
numbers, we ought not to include everybody, for there must
always be in cities a multitude of slaves and sojourners and
foreigners ; but we should include those only who are members
of the state, and who form an essential part of it. The number
of the latter is a proof of the greatness of a city ; but a city
which produces numerous artisans and comparatively few
soldiers cannot be great, for a great city is not to be confounded

7 with a populous one. Moreover, experience shows that a very
populous city can rarely, if ever, be well governed ; since all
cities which have a reputation for good government have a
limit of population. We may argue on grounds of reason, and

8 the same result will follow. For law is order, and good law
is good order ; but a very great multitude cannot be orderly :
to introduce order into the unlimited is the work of a divine

' power — of such a power as holds together the universe. Beauty

^ 9 is realized in number and magnitude S and the state which com-

^i-xX bines magnitude with good order must necessarily be the most

1 Cp. Poet. 7. § 4.

The Number of the Citizens 2(^7

beautiful. To the size of states there is a limit, as there is to VII. 4
other things, plants, animals, implements ; for none of these jo
retain their natural power when they are too large or too small,
but they either wholly lose their nature, or are spoiled. For
example \ a ship which is only a span long will not be a ship
at all, nor a ship a quarter of a mile long ; yet there may be
a ship of a certain size, either too large or too small, which
will still be a ship, but bad for sailing. In like manner a state ^^-^ ^
when composed of too few is not as a state ought to be, self-
sufficing ; when of too many, though self-sufficing in all mere
necessaries, it is a nation and not a state, being almost incap-
able of constitutional government. For who can be the general
of such a vast multitude, or who the herald, unless he have the
voice of a Stentor ?

A state then only begins to exist when it has attained
a population sufficient for a good life in the political com-
munity: it may indeed somewhat exceed this number. But, 12 ^-^^^^.^^^^ u ■
as I was saying, there must be a limit. What should be //'

the limit will be easily ascertained by experience. For both
governors and governed have duties to perform ; the special
functions of a governor are to command and to judge. But 13
if the citizens of a state are to judge and to distribute offices
according to merit, tlien they must know each other's
characters ; where they do not possess this knowledge,
both the election to offices and the decision of lawsuits
will go wiong. When tlie population is very large they 1
are manifestly settled at haphazard, which clearly ought (
not to be. Besides, in an overpopulous state foreigners and 14
metics will readily acquire the rights of citizens, for who will
find them out ? Clearly, then, the best limit of the population j
> Cp. V. 9. § 7.

2^8 The Situation of the City

VII. 4 of a state Is the largest number which suffices for the pur-

' ])oses of Hfe, and can be taken in at a single view. Enough

concerning the size of a city.

•^ • 5 Much the same principle will apply to the territory of the

K state ; every one would agree in praising the state which

I ,4,.- is most entirely self-sufficing; and that must be the state

which is all-producing, for to have all things and to want

nothing is sufficiency. In size and extent it should be such

as may enable the inhabitants to live temperately and liberally

in the enjoyment of leisured Whether we are right or

wrong in laying down this limit we will enquire more precisely

hereafter ^, when we have occasion to consider what is the

right use of property and wealth : a matter which is much

disputed, because men are inclined to rush into one of two

extremes, some into meanness, others into luxury.

3 It is net difficult to determine the general character of

the territory which is required ; there are, however, some

points on which military authorities should be heard ; they

tell us that it should be difficult of access to the enemy, and

1327 a easy of egress to the inhabitants. Further, we require that

the land as well as the inhabitants of whom we were just now

speaking should be taken in at a single view, for a country

which is easily seen can be easily protected. As to the

position of the city, if we could have what we wish, it should

"4 be well situated in regard both to sea or land. This then

is one principle, that it should be a convenient centre for the

protection of the whole country : the other is, that it should

be suitable for receiving the fruits of the soil, and also for the

bringing in of timber and any other products.

6 Whether a communication with the sea is beneficial to

1 Cp. ii. 6. § 9. » Cp. c. S-io infra 'J).

Proximity of the Sea^ Good or Evilt' z6^

a well-ordered state or not is a question which has often been VII. 6
asked. It is argued that the introduction of strangers brought
up under other laws, and the increase of population, will be 1
adverse to good order (for a maritime people will always have
a crowd of merchants coming and going), and that intercourse
by sea is inimical to good government^. Apart from these 2
considerations, it would be undoubtedly better, both with
a view to safety and to the provision of necessaries, that the
city and territory should be connected with the sea ; the 3
defenders of a country, if they are to maintain themselves
against an enemy, should be easily relieved both by land and
by sea; and even if they are not able to attack by sea and
land at once, they will have less difficulty in doing mischief
to their assailant^ on one element, if they themselves can use
both. Moreover, it is necessary that they should import fromg4
abroad what is not found in their own country, and that theyl
should export what they have in excess; for a city ought 10*
be a market, not indeed for others, but for herself.

Those who make themselves a market for the world only
do so for the sake of revenue, and if a state ought not to
desire profit of this kind it ought not to have such an
emporium. Nowadays we often see in countries and cities 5
dockyards and harbours very conveniently placed outside the
city, but not too far off; and they are kept in dependence by
walls and similar fortifications. Cities thus situated mani-
festly reap the benefit of intercourse with their ports ; and
any harm which is likely to accme may be easily guarded
against by the laws, which will pronounce and determine who
may hold communication with one another, and who may not.

There can be no doubt that the possession of a moderate 6
^ Cp. Plato, Laws, iv. 704 ff.

2 70 The Character of the Citi^^ens

VII, 6 naval force is advantageous to a city ; the citizens require

]327bsuch a force for their own needs, and they should also

be formidable to their neighbours in certain cases ^, or,

if necessary, able to assist them by sea as well as by land.

7 Tiie proper number or magnitude of this naval force is
relative to the character of the state ; for if her function
is to take a leading part in politics I her naval power should
be commensurate with the scale of her enterprises. The
population of the state need not be much increased, since

8 there is no necessity that the sailors should be citizens : the
marines who have the control and command will be freemen,
^nd belong also to the infontry ; and wherever there is
a dense population of Perioeci and husbandmen, there will
always be sailors moie than enough. Of this we see
instances at the present day. The city of Heraclea, for
example, although small in comparison with many others, can

9 man a considerable fleet. Such are our conclusions respect-
ing the territory of the state, its harbour, its towns, its
relations to the sea, and its maritime power.

7 Having spoken of the number of the citizens, we will
proceed to speak of what should be their character. This is
a subject which can be easily understood by any one who
casts his eye on the more celebrated states of Hellas,
and generally on the distribution of races in the habitable
2 world. Those who live in a cold climate and in [northern]
' Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and
skill ; and therefore they keep their freedom, but have
no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over
others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and

' Cp. ii. 6. § 7.

^ Reading ttoKitikuv with the MSS. and Bekker's first edition.

The Character of the Citi'^ns 271

inventive, but they are wanting in spiiit, and therefore they are VII. 7
always in a state of subjection and slavery. But the Hellenic 3
race, which is situated between them, is likewise intermediate
in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent ^. Hence
it continues free, and is the best governed of any nation, and,
if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the
world. There are also similar differences in the different tribes 4
of Hellas ; for some of them are of a one-sided nature, and
are intelligent or courageous only, while in others there is a
happy combination of both qualities. And clearly those whom
the legislator will most easily lead to virtue may be expected
to be both intelligent and courageous. Some [like Plato ^] 5
say that the guardians should be friendly towards those
whom they know, fierce towards those whom they do not
know. Now, passion is the quality of the soul which begets 1328 a
friendship and inspires affection ; notably the spirit within us
is more stirred against our friends and acquaintances than
against those who are unknown to us, when we think that we
are despised by them ; for which reason Archilochus, com- 6
plaining of his friends, very naturally addresses his soul in these
words,

• For wert thou not plagued on account of friends ^ ? '
The power of command and the love of freedom are in all
men based upon this quality, for passion is commanding and
invincible. Nor is it right to say that the guardians should be 7
fierce towards those whom they do not know, for we ought
not to be out of temper with any one ; and a lofty spirit is not

* Cp. Plato, Rep. iv. 435 e, 436 A. * Rep. ii. 375.

* Qr : ' For surely thou art not plagued on account of thy friends?'
The line is probably corrupt. Better to read with Bergk, av fap Sfj iraph.
(piXwv dnayxfo, ' for thou indeed wert plagued by friends.'

2 72 The Passionate Nahire

VII. 7 fierce by nature, but only when excited against evil-doers.
And this, as I was saying before, is a feeling which men
show most strongly towards their friends if they think they

8 have received a wrong at their hands : as indeed is reason-
able ; for, besides the actual injury, they seem to be de-
prived of a benefit by those who owe them one. Hence the

saying,

' Cruel is the strife of brethren ^ ; '
and again,

' They who love in excess also hate in excess *.'

9 Thus we have nearly determined the number and character
of the citizens of our state, and also the size and nature of
their territory. I say ' nearly,' for we ought not to require
the same minuteness in theory as in fact^.

8 As in other natural compounds the conditions of a compo-
site whole are not necessarily organic parts of it, so in a state
or in any other combination forming a unity not everything

2 is a part, which is a necessary condition '. The members of
an association have necessarily some one thing the same
and common to all, in which they share equally or unequally ;

3 for example, food or land or any other thing. But where
there are two things of which one is a means and the other
an end, they have nothing in common except that the one
receives what the other produces. Such, for example, is the
relation in which workmen and tools stand to their work ;
the house and the builder have nothing in common, but

4 the ait of the builder is for the sake of the house. And

so states require property, but property, even though living

beings are included in it *, is no part of a state ; for a state is

^ Eurip. Frag. 51 Dindorf. '' Cp. 12. § 9, infra.

3 Cp. iii. 5. § 2. * Cp. i. 4. § 2.

The Necessary Conditions of a State 273

not a community of living beings only, but a community VII. 8

of equals, aiming at the best life possible. Now, whereas 5

happiness is the highest good, being a realization and perfect

practice of virtue, whicli some attain, while others have little

or none of it, the various qualities of men are clearly the

reason why there are various kinds of states and many forms

of government ; for different men seek after happiness in

different ways and by different means, and so make for 1328 b

themselves different modes of life and forms of government. - I3t<>vl«cr ,

We must see also how many things are indispensable to 6 fr

the existence of a state, for what we call the parts of a state

will be found among them. Let us then enumerate the

functions of a state, and we shall easily elicit what we want :

First, there must be food ; secondly, arts, for life requires 7
many instruments ; thirdly, there must be arms, for the
members of a community have need of them in order to
maintain authority both against disobedient subjects and
against external assailants ; fourthly, there must be a certain
amount of revenue, both for internal needs and for the - 1

purposes of war ; fifthlyj or rather first, there must be a care .^-^ \
of religion, which is commonly called worship ; sixthly, and \ /

most necessary of all, there must be a power of deciding what
is for the public interest, and what is just in men's dealings
with one another.

These are the things which every state may be said to 8
need. For a state is not a mere aggregate of persons, but
a union of them sufficing for the purposes of life ^ ; and
if any of these things be wanting, it is simply impossible
that the community can be self-sufKcing. A state then 9

* Cp. supra, c, 5. § I.

DAVI5 X

2 74 "^he Necessary Conditions of a State

VII. S should be framed with a view to the fulfilment of these
functions. There must be husbandmen to procure food, and
artisans, and a warlike and a wealthy class, and priests, and
judges to decide what is just ^ and expedient.
0 Having determined these points, we have in the next place
to consider whether all ought to share in every sort of occupa-
tion. Shall every man be at once husbandman, artisan, coun-
cillor, judge, or shall we sup])Ose the several occupations just
mentioned assigned to different persons ? or, thirdly, shall some
employments be assigned to individuals and others common to
all ? The question, however, does not occur in every state ;

2 as we were saying, all may be shared by all, or not all by all,
but only some by some - ; and hence arise the differences of
states, for in democracies all share in all, in oligarchies the

3 opposite practice prevails. Now, since we are here speaking
of the best form of government, and that under which the state
will be most happy (and happiness, as has been already said,
cannot exist without virtue '), it clearly follows that in the
state which is best governed the citizens who are absolutely
and not merely relatively just men must not lead the life of

kmechanics or tradesmen, for such a life is ignoble and inimical
4lto virtue*. Neither must they be husbandmen, since leisure is
1329 ai necessary both for the development of viitue and the perform-
[ance of political duties.

Again, there is in a state a class of warriors, and another

of councillors, who advise about the expedient and determine

matters of law, and these seem in an especial manner parts of

a state. Now, should these two classes be distinguished, or

5 are both functions to be assigned to the same persons ? Here

' Reading SiKaiciii' with Bekker in his second edition.
' Cp. iv. 4 and 14. ' Cp. c. 8. § 5. ■• Cp. Plaio, Laws, xi. 919.

The Governing Classes 275"

again there is no difficulty in seeing that both functions will in VII. 9
one way belong to the same, in another, to different persons.
To different persons in so far as their employments are suited,
to different ages of life, for the one requires wisdom, and the' .
other strength. But on the other hand, since it is an im-
possible thing that those who are able to use or to resist force
should be willing to remain always in subjection, from this
point of view the persons are the same ; for those who carry „
arms can always determine the fate of the constitution. It 6
remains therefore that both functions of government should be
entrusted to the same persons, not, however, at the same time,
but in the order prescribed by nature, who has given to young
men strength and to older men wisdom. Such a distribution
of duties will be expedient and also just, for it is in accordance
with desert. Besides, the ruling class should be the owners of. 7
property, for they are citizens, and the citizens of a state should!
be in good circumstances ; whereas mechanics or any other/
class whose art excludes the art of virtue have no share in the]
state. This follows from our first principle, for happiness can-
not exist without virtue, and a city is not to be termed happy
in regard to a portion of the citizens, but in regard to them all ^.
And clearly property should be in their hands, since the hus- s
bandmen will of necessity be slaves or barbarians or Perioeci ^.
Of the classes enumerated there remain only the priests, and
the manner in which their office is to be regulated is obvious.
I No husbandman or mechanic should be appointed to it ; for 9
I the Gods should receive honour from the citizens only. Now
since the body of the citizens is divided into two classes, the
warriors and the councillors ; and it is beseeming that the
worship of the Gods should be duly performed, and also a
• Cp. ii. 5. §§ 27, 28 2 cp_ j„fj^^ ^ jQ_ ij J2^ i^,

T 2

2. J 6 Wairiors — Councillors — Priests

VII. 9 lest provided in their service for those who from age have

j given up active life — to the old men of these two classes should

<be assigned the duties of the priesthood.

lo We have shown what are the necessary conditions, and

what the parts of a state : husbandmen, craftsmen, and labourers

of all kinds are necessary to the existence of states, but the

parts of the state are the warriors and councillors. And these

are distinguished severally from one another, the distinction

being in some cases permanent, in others not.

10 It is no new or recent discovery of political philosophers

1329 blthat the state ought to be divided into classes, and that the

'warriors should be separated from the husbandmen. The

l)iri£iffh f^ ^ftn-^ system has continued in Egypt and in Crete to this day, and

jLtot^ *r^cA/i/> »i«/i .was established, as tradition says, by a law of Sesostris in

Oj- 2 Egypt and of Minos in Crete. The institution of common

tiu txi^iiM tables also appears to be of ancient date, being in Crete as

3 old as the reign of Minos, and in Italy far older. The Italian
historians say that there was a certain Italus king of Oenotria,
from whom the Oenotrians were called Italians, and who gave
the name of Italy to the promontory of Europe lying between
the Scylletic and Lametic Gulfs, which are distant from one

4 another only half a day's journey. They say that this Italus
converted the Oenotrians from shepherds into husbandmen, and
besides other laws which he gave them, was the founder of
their common meals ; even in our day some who are derived
from him retain this institution and certain other laws of his.

5 On the side of Italy towards Tyrrhenia dwelt the Opici, who
are now, as of old, called Ausones ; and on the side towards
lapygia and the Ionian Gulf, in the district called Syrtis \ the

' Retaining the reading of the MSS., which Rckker in his second
edition has altered into Sfprns, a conjecture of Goettling's.

Ancient E(rypt^ Crete ^ Italy ^77

Chones, who are likewise of Oenotiian race. From this part VII. 10
of the world originally came the institution of common tables ;
the separation into castes [which was much older] from Egypt,
for the reign of Sesostris is of far greater antiquity than that
of Minos. It is true indeed that these and many other things 7
have been invented several times over ^ in the course of ages,
or rather times without number ; for necessity may be supposed
to have taught men the inventions which were absolutely re-
quired, and when these were provided, it was natural that other
things which would adorn and enrich life should grow up by
degrees. And we may infer that in political institutions the
same rule holds. Egypt ^ witnesses to the antiquity of all 8
things, for the Egyptians appear to be of all people the most
ancient ; and they have laws and a regular constitution [existing
from time immemorial]. We should therefore make the best
use of what has been already discovered ^, and try to supply
defects.

1 have already remarked that the land ought to belong to 9
those who possess arms and have a share in the government*,"
and that the husbandmen ought to be a class distinct from them ;
and I have determined what should be the extent and nature
of the territory. Let me proceed to discuss the distribution
of the land, and the character of the agricultural class ; for

I do not think that property ought to be common, as some

' Cp. Plato, Laws, iii. 676 ; Aristotle, Metaph. xi. 8. 10745.10; and
Pol. ii. 5. § 16 (note).

2 Cp. Metaph. i. i. § 16; Meteor, i. 14. 352 b. 19; Plato, Timaeus,
22 B ; Laws, ii. 656, 657.

^ Reading, with Bekker in his second edition, eiipijtifvots : which may
have been altered into dprjixfuots from a confusion of up-qrai Tcpurepov
in § 9 infra.

' Cp. supra, c. 9. §§ 5-7.

278 Private Landholders — Common steals

VII. 10 [maintain^, but only that by friendly consent there should be
1330 aja common use of it ; and that no citizen should be in want of
subsistence.

As to common meals, there is a genejal agreement that a well-

(''i , tu <.zK\n}>A 'J 'o ordered city should have them ; and we will hereafter explain

ft^', u., . >i. A.^. what are our own reasons for taking this view. They ought,

however, to be open to all the citizens *. And yet it is not

easy for the poor to contribute the requisite sum out of their

private means, and to provide also for their household. The

. expense of religious worship should likewise be a public charge,

^ ^ The land must therefore be divided into two parts, one public

and the other private, and each part should be subdivided,

half of the public land being appropriated to the service of

the Gods, and the other half used to defray the cost of the

common meals ; while of the private land, half should be

near the border, and the other near the city, so that each

citizen having two lots they may all of them have land in both

places ; there is justice and fairness in such a division ', and it

tends to inspire unanimity among the people in their bordei-

12 wars. Where there is not this arrangement, some of them are
too ready to come to blows with their neighbours, while others
are so cautious that they quite lose the sense of honour.
Wherefore there is a law in some places which forbids those
who dwell near the border to take part in public deliberations
about wars with neighbours, on the ground that their Interests

13 will pervert their judgment. For the reasons already mentioned,
then, the land should be divided in the manner described.

» Cp. ii. 5. « Cp. ii. 9. § 31.

3 Cp. Plato, Laws, V. 745, where the ssnie proposal is found. Aristotle,
ill Rook ii. 6. § 15, coiideimis the division of lots which he here

adepts.

He

The Land and its Cultivators 279 >

The very best thing of all would be that the husbandmen should VII. 10

be slaves, not all of the same race^ and not spirited, for if

they have no spirit they will be better suited for their work,

and there will be no danger of their making a revolution. The

next best thing would be that they should be Perioeci of foreign

race ^, and of a like inferior nature ; some of them should be 14

the slaves of individuals, and employed on the private estates

of men of property, the remainder should be the property of

the state and employed on the common land ^. I will hereafter . pa

explain what is the proper treatment of slaves, and why it is 1^"-^^^^ ff

expedient that liberty should be always held out to them as{

the reward of their services.

We have already said that the city should be open to the 11
land and to the sea *, and to the whole country as far
as possible. In respect of the place itself our wish would
be to find a situation for it, fortunate in four things. The
first, health — this is a necessity : cities which lie towards the 2
east, and are blown upon by winds coming from the east,
are the healthiest ; next in healthfulness are those which are
sheltered from the north wind, for they have a milder winter.
The site of the city should likewise be convenient both 1330 b
for political administration and for war. With a view to the 3
latter it should afford easy egress to the citizens, and
at the same time be inaccessible and difficult of capture to
enemies^. There should be a natural abundance of springs
and fountains in the town or, if there is a deficiency of them,
great reservoirs may be established for the collection of
rain-water, such as will not fail when the inhabitants are cut

1 Cp. Plato, Laws, vi. 777. ' Cp. c. 9. § 8.

« Cp. ii. 7. § 23. * Cp. c. 5. § 3.

° Repetition of c. 5. § 3.

28o The City: Sanitary Conditions

VII. 11 off from the country by war. Special care should be taken
■* of the health of the inhabitants, which will depend chiefly on
the healthiness of the locality and of the quarter to which they
are exposed, and secondly, on the use of pure water; this
latter point is by no means a secondary consideration. For
the elements which we use most and oftenest for the support
of the body contribute most to health, and among these

5 are water and air. Wherefore, in all wise states, if there is
a want of pure water, and the supply is not all equally good,
the drinking water ought to be separated from that which is
used for other purposes.

As to strongholds, what is suitable to different forms of
government varies : thus an acropolis is suited to an oligarchy
or a monarchy, but a plain to a democracy; neither to an

6 aristocracy, but rather a number of strong places. The
arrangement of private houses is considered to be more
agreeable and generally more convenient if the streets are
regularly laid out after the modein fashion which Hippo-
damus ^ introduced ; but for security in war the antiquated
mode of building, which made it dil^cult for strangers to get
out of a town and for assailants to fmd their way in, is

y preferable. A city should therefore adopt both plans of
building : it is possible to arrange the houses irregularly,
as husbandmen plant their vines in what are called ' clumps.'
The whole town should not be laid out in straight lines, but
only certain quarters and regions ; thus security and beauty
will be combined.

8 As to walls, those who say ^ that cities making any
pretension to military virtue should not have them, are quite
out of date in their notions ; and they may see the cities
' Cp. ii. 8. § I. Cp. I'laio, Laws, vi. 778, 779.

Mil it a ry T\eq u irem en ts i%\

which prided themselves on this fancy confuted by facts. VII. 11
True, there is little courage shown in seeking for safety 9
behind a rampart when an enemy is similar in character
and not much superior in number ; but the superiority of the
besiegers may be and often is beyond the power of men to
resist, and too much for the valour of a few ; and if they
are to be saved and to escape defeat and outrage, the strongest 1331 a
wall will be the best defence of the warrior, more especially
now that catapults and siege engines have been brought
to such perfection. To hiive no walls would be as foolish ^o
as to choose a site for a town in an exposed country, and to
level the heights ; or as if an individual were to leave his ,
house unwalled, lest the inmates should become cowards. 1
Nor must we forget that those who have their cities surrounded 11
by walls may either take advantage of them or not, but cities
which are unwalled have no choice.

If our conclusions are just, not only should cities have
walls, but care should be taken to make them ornamental,
as well as useful for warlike purposes, and adapted to resist
modern inventions. For as the assailants of a city do 12
all they can to gain an advantage, so the defenders should
make use of any means of defence which have been already
discovered, and should devise and invent others, for wlien
men are well prepared no enemy even thinks of attacking
them.

As the walls are to be divided by guardhouses and towers 12
built at suitable intervals, and the body of citizens must
be distributed at common tables, the idea will naturally
occur that we should establish some of the common tables
in the guardhouses. The arrangement might be as follows : 2
the piincipal common tables of the magistrates will occupy

282 Public Buildings

VII. 12 a suitable place, and there also will be the buildings appro-
priated to religious worship except in the case of those rites
which the law or the Pythian oracle has restricted to a

3 special locality ^. The site should be a spot seen far and
wide, which gives due elevation to virtue and towers over the
neighbourhood. Near tliis spot should be established an
agora, such as that which the Thessalians call the ' freemen's

4 agora ' ; from this all trade should be excluded, and no
mechanic, husbandman, oi" any such person allowed to enter,
unless he be summoned by the magistrates. It would be
a charming use of the place, if the gymnastic exercises of

5 the elder men were performed there. For ' in this noble
practice different ages should be separated -, and some of
the magistrates should stay with the boys, while the grown-
up men remain with the magistrates [i. e. in the fieeman's
agoi-a] ; for the presence of the magistrates is the best mode

u Qf inspiring true modesty and ingenuous fear. There should
also be a traders' agora, distinct and apart from the other, in
a situation which is convenient for tlie reception of goods
both by sea and land.

But in speaking of the magistrates we must not forget
another section of the citizens, viz. the priests, for whom
public tables should likewise be provided in their proper

7 place near the temples. The magistrates who deal with
contracts, indictments, summonses, and the like, and those
who have the care of the agora and of the city respectively,
ought to be established near the agora and in some public
place of meeting ; the neighbourhood of the traders' agora
will be a suitable spot ; the upper agora we devote to

* Cp. Plato, Laws, v. 738 ; vi. 759, 778 ; vlii. 848.

* Or 'this institution should be diviiled according to ages.'

The End of the State and the I^ leans 283

the life of leisure, the other is intended for the necessities of VII. 12
trade.

The same order should prevail ^ in the country, for there 8
too the magistrates, called by some ' Inspectors of Forests,'
and by others 'Wardens of the Country,' must have guard-
houses and common tables while they are on duty ; temples
I should also be scattered throughout the country, dedicated,
I some to Gods, and some to heroes.

But it would be a waste of time for us to linger over 9
details like these. The difficulty is not in imagining but in
carrying them out. We may talk about them as much as we
like, but the execution of them will depend upon fortune.
Wherefore let us say no more about these matters for the present.

Returning to the constitution itself, let us seek to 13
determine out of what, and what sort of, elements the state
which is to be happy and well-governed should be composed.
There are two things in which all well-being consists ; one of 2
them is the choice of a right end and aim of action, and
the other the discovery of the actions which are means
towards it ; for the means and the end may agree or disagree.
Sometimes the right end is set before men, but in practice they
fail to attain it ; in other cases they are successful in all the
means, but tliey propose to themselves a bad end, and some-
times they fail in both. Take, for example, the art of medicine ;
physicians do not always understand the nature of health, and
also the means which they use may not effect the desired end.
In all arts and sciences both the end and the means should be
equally within our control.

The happiness and well-being which all men manifestly 3
desire, some have the power of attaining, but to others, from

^ Reading vtViixfiaQai with liekker's first edition.

284 The Good Life T{cquires External Goods

VII. 13 some accident or defect of nature, the attainment of them is

1332 a not granted ; for a good life requires a supply of external

goods, in a less degree when men are in a good state, in

4 a greater degree when they are in a lower state. Others
again, who possess the condition of happiness, go utterly
wrong from the first in the pursuit of it. But since our
object is to discover the best form of government, that,
namely, under which a city will be best governed, and since
the city is best governed which has the greatest opportunity
of obtaining happiness, it is evident that we must clearly
ascertain the nature of happiness.

5 We have said in the Ethics \ if the arguments there adduced
are of any value, that happiness is the realization and perfect
exercise of virtue, and this not conditional, but absolute.
And I used the term ' conditional ' to express that which is
indispensable, and ' absolute ' to express that which is good
in itself. Take the case of just actions ; just punishments
and chastisements do indeed spring from a good principle, but
they are good only because we cannot do without them —
it would be better that neither individuals nor states should
need anything of the sort — but actions which aim at honour

7 and advantage are absolutely the best. Tlie conditional
action is only the choice - of a lesser evil ; whereas these are
the foundation and creation of good. A good man may
make the best even of poverty and disease, and the other ills
of life ; but he can only attain happiness under the opposite
conditions ^ As we have already said in the Ethics*,

' Cp. N. Eth. i. 7. § 15 ; X. 6. § 2 ; aiui cp. c. 8. § 5, supra.

^ Retaining the MSS. reading atptais with Bc-kker's first edition.

' N. Eth. i. 10. § 12-14.

* N. Eih. iii. 4. §§ 4, 5 ; E. E. v.i. 15. § 4 ; M. M. Ii. y. § 3.

The Good Life Requires External Goods 28 y

the good man is he to whom, because he is virtuous, the VII. 13
absolute good is his good. It is also plain that his use 8
of other goods must be virtuous and in the absolute sense
good. This makes men fancy that external goods are the
cause of happiness, yet vv'e might as well say that a brilliant
performance on the lyre was to be attributed to the instru-
ment and not to the skill of the performer.

It follows then from what has been said that some things
the legislator must find ready to his hand in a state, others
he must provide. And therefore we can only say : May 9
our state be constituted in such a manner as to be blessed
with the goods of which fortune disposes (for we acknow-
ledge her power) : whereas virtue and goodness in the
state are not a matter of chance but the result of knowledge
and purpose. A city can be virtuous only when the citizens
who have a share in the government are virtuous, and in
our state all the citizens share in the government ; let us then
enquire how a man becomes virtuous. For even if we could 10
suppose all the citizens to be virtuous, and not each of them,
yet the latter would be better, for in the virtue of each the
virtue of all is involved.

There are three things which make men good and virtuous:
these are nature, habit, reason^. In the first place, every one 11
must be born a man and not some other animal ; in the
second place, he must have a certain character, both of
body and soul. But some qualities there is no use in having
at birth, for they are altered by habit, and there are some 1332 b
gifts of nature which may be turned by habit to good or
bad. Most animals lead a life of nature, although in lesser 12
uarticulars some are influenced by habit as well. Man
1 Cp. N. Eth. X. 9. § 6.

285 Hovo IMen hccome Good

VII. 13 has reason, in addition, and man only '. Wherefore nature,

habit, reason must be in harmony with one another [for they

I do not always agree] ; men do many things against habit and

[J nature, if reason persuades them that they ought. We have

already determined what natures are likely to be most easily

moulded by the hands of the legislator ^. All else is the work

of education ; we learn some things by habit and some by

instruction.

14 Since every political society is comi)Osed of rulers and

subjects, let us consider whether the relations of one to

the other should interchange or be permanent '. For the

education of the citizens will necessarily vary with the answer

3 given to this question. Now, if some men excelled others

in the same degree in which gods and heroes are supposed to

excel mankind in general, having in the first place a great

advantage even in their bodies, and secondly in their minds,

so that the superiority of the governors * over their subjects

was patent and undis])utcd *, it would clearly be better that

once for all the one class should rule and the others serve".

3 But since this is unattainable, and kings have no marked
superiority over their subjects, such as Scylax affirms to be
found among the Indians, it is obviously necessary on many
grounds that all the citizens alike should take their turn of
governing and being governed. Equality consists in the same
treatment of similar persons, and no government can stand

4 which is not founded upon justice. For [if the government
be unjust] every one in the country unites with the governed

• Cp. i. 2. § lo. '^ Cp. supra, c. 7. § 4. ' Cp. iii. 6. § y.

* Or, taking rofs a.p\o^ivoi^ with (fiavfpav, ' was tindisputed and patent
to their subiects.'

» Cp. i. 5. § 8; iii. 13. § 13.

Same Persons Jailers aiid Subjects 287

in the desire to have a revolution, and it is an impossibility that VII. 14
the members of the government can be so numerous as to be
stronger than all their enemies put together. Yet that governors
should excel their subjects is undeniable. How all this is to
be effected, and in what way they will respectively share in
the government, the legislator has to consider. The subject
has been already mentioned '. Nature herself has given the 5
principle of choice when she made a difference between old
and young (though they are really the same in kind), of whom
she fitted the one to govern and the others to be governed.
No one takes offence at being governed when he is young,
nor does he think himself better than his governors, espe- '
cially if he will enjoy the same privilege when he reaches the
required age.

. We conclude that from one point of view governors 6
land governed are identical, and from another different. And
therefore their education must be the same and also different. 1333 a
For he who would learn to command well must, as men say,
first of all learn to obey ^. As I observed in the first
part of this treatise, there is one rule which is for the sake
of the rulers and another rule which is for the sake of the
ruled ^ ; the former is a despotic, the latter a free government. 7
Some commands differ not in the thing commanded, but
in the intention with which they are imposed. Wherefore,
many apparently menial offices are an honour to the free
youth by whom they are performed ; for actions do not differ
as honourable or dishonourable in themselves so much as in the
end and intention of them. But since we say * that the virtue 8 C\-'W i09'
of the citizen and ruler is the same as that of the good man, I

1 Cp. c. 9. § 5. - Cp. iii. 4. § 14,

' Cp. iii. 6. § 6. * Cp. iii. 4 and 5. § 10.

28 8 Who TUN St Learn T^dc by Obedience

VII. 14 and that the same person must first be a subject and then

a ruler, the legislator has to see that they become good men,

and by what means this may be accomplished, and what is

the end of the perfect life.

9 Now the soul of man is divided into two parts, one of

! which has reason in itself, and the other, not having reason
in itself, is able to obey reason \ And we call a man
>igood because he has the virtues of these two parts. In
which of them the end is more likely to be found is no
lo matter of doubt to those who adopt our division ; for in
the world both of nature and of art the inferior always exists
for the sake of the better or superior, and the better or
superior is that which has reason. The reason too, in
I !)9r? ^\ I ^^^^ ordinary way of speaking, is divided into two parts, for

,1' |ii there is a practical and a speculative reason'^, and there must

' be a corresponding division of actions ; the actions of the
naturally better principle are to be preferred by those who
have it in their j)0wer to attain to both or to all, for that
is always to every one the most eligible which is the highest

12 attainable by him. The whole of life is further divided
I into two parts, business and leisui-e ^, war and peace, and all
■ actions into those which are necessary and useful, and those

13 which are honourable. And the preference given to one
or the other class of actions must necessarily be like the
preference given to one or other part of the soul and its

I actions over the other ; there must be war for the sake

of j)eace, business for the sake of leisure, things useful

' and necessary for the sake of things honourable. All these

1 C|.. N. Kth. i. 13. §§ IS, ly.
" Cp. N. Eth. vi. I. § 5; 1 1. § 4.
» N. Eth. X. 7, § 6.

The Spartan Ideal Critic'iT^d 289

points the statesman should keep in view when he frames his VII. 14
laws ; he should consider the parts of the soul and their
functions, and above all the better and the end ; he should 14
also remember the diversities of human lives and actions.
For men must engage in business and go to war, but leisure 1333 b
and peace are better; they must do what is necessary and I ^o-v^tjU fe- '"'^
useful, but what is honourable is better. In such principles
children and persons of every age which requires education *

should be trained. Whereas even the Hellenes of the 15
present day, who are reputed to be best governed, and the
legislators who gave them their constitutions, do not appear
to have framed their governments with a regard to the best
end, or to have given them laws and education with a view to
all the virtues, but in a vulgar spirit have fallen back on those
which promised to be more useful and profitable. Many i5
modern writeis have taken a similar view : they commend the
Lacedaemonian constitution, and praise the legislator for
making conquest and war his sole aim ^, a doctrine which
may be refuted by argument and has long ago been refuted by
facts. For most men desire empire in the hope of accumu- 17
lating the goods of fortune ; and on this ground Thibron and
all those who have written about the Lacedaemonian consti-
tution have praised their legislator, because the Lacedae-
monians, by a training in hardships, gained great power.
But surely they are not a happy people now that their empire 18
has passed away, nor was their legislator right. How
ridiculous is the result, if, while they are continuing in the
observances of his laws and no one inteiferes with them
they have lost the better part of life. These writers further 19

' Plato, Laws, i. 628, 638.

DAVIS U

290 spartan or 'Military Ideal ^„i.figf iixsf

VII. 14 err about the sort of government which the legislator should
approve, for the government of freemen is noble, and implies
more virtue than despotic government \ Neither is a city to
be deemed happy or a legislator to be praised because he
trains his citizens to conquer and obtain dominion over their

20 neighbours, for there is great evil in this. On a similar
principle any citizen who could, would obviously try to obtain
the power in his own state — the crime which the Lacedae-
monians accused king Pausanias of attempting ^, although
he had so great honour already. No such principle and
no law having this object is either statesmanlike or useful or

21 right. For the same things are best both for individuals and
for states, and these are the things which the legislator ought
to implant in the minds of his citizens. Neither should men

\ study war with a view to the enslavement of those who

\ ^ -do not deserve to be enslaved ; but first of all they should

\<. /provide against their own enslavement, and in the second

1331 a place obtain empire for the good of the governed, and not for

I the sake of exercising a general despotism, and in the third

place they should seek to be masters only over those

22 who deserve to be slaves. Facts, as well as arguments, prove
that the legislator should direct all his military and other
measures to the provision of leisure and the establishment of
peace. For most of these military states are safe only while
they are at war ', but fall when they have acquired their
empire ; like unused iron they lose their edge in time of peace.
And for this the legislator is to blame, he never having

' taught them how to lead the life of peace.

15 Since the end of individuals and of states is the same, the

I Cp. i. 5. § 2. * Cp. V. I. § 10 ; 7. § 4.

' Cp. ii. 9. § 34.

spartan or Military Ideal 291

end of the best man and of the best state must also be VII. 15
the same ; it is therefore evident that there ought to exist in
both of them the virtues of leisure ; for peace, as has been ,
often repeated, is the end of war, and leisure of toil. But 3
leisure and cultivation may be promoted, not only by those
virtues which are practised in leisure, but also by some
of those which are useful to business-^. For many neces-
saries of life have to be supplied before we can have leisure.
Therefore a city must be temperate and brave, and able
to endure : for truly, as the proverb says, ' There is no
leisure for slaves,' and those who cannot face danger like men
are the slaves of any invader. Courage and endurance 3
are required for business and intellectual virtue for leisure,
temperance and justice for both, more especially in times
of peace and leisure, for war compels men to be just and
temperate, whereas the enjoyment of good fortune and
the leisure which comes with peace tends to make them
insolent. Those, then, who seem to be the best off and to be 4
in the possession of every good, have special need of justice
and temperance — for example, those (if such there be, as the
poets say) who dwell in the Islands of the Blest ; they above
all will need philosophy and temperance and justice, and all
the more the more leisure they have, living in the midst
of abundance. There is no difficulty in seeing why the state 5
that would be happy and good ought to have these virtues.
If it be disgraceful in men not to be able to use the goods of
life, it is peculiarly disgraceful not to be able to use them in
time of peace — to show excellent qualities in action and war,
and when they have peace and leisure to be no better than slaves.

' i. e. ' not only by some of the speculative but also by some of the
practical virtues,'

V 3

292 Need of a Higher Ideal of Life

VII. 15 Wherefore we should not practise virtue after the manner of
^ the Lacedaemonians ^. For they, while agreeing with other
1334 b men in their conception of the highest goods, differ from the
rest of mankind in thinking that they are to be obtained by the
practice of a single virtue. And since these goods and the
enjoyment of them are clearly greater than the enjoyment
derived from the virtues of which they are the end, we must
now consider how and by what means they are to be
attained.

7 We have already determined that nature and habit and reason
are required ^, and what should be the character of the citizens
has also been defined by us. But we have still to consider
whether the training of early life is to be that of reason or
habit, for these two must accord, and when in accord they
will then form the best of harmonies. Reason may make
mistakes and fail in attaining the highest ideal of life, ' and

8 there may be a like evil influence of habit '. Thus much is
clear in the first place, that, as in all other things, generation
starts from a beginning, and that the ends of some beginnings
are related to another end. Now, in men reason and mind are
the end towards which nature strives, so that the generation
and moral discipline of the citizens ought to be ordered with

g a view to them. In the second place, as the soul and body

are two, we see also that there aie two parts of the soul, the

rational and the irrational*, and two corresponding states —

ireason and a])petite. And as the body is prior in order of

Jgeneration to the soul, so the irrational is prior to the rational.

» Cp. ii. 9. § 34. » Cp. 13. § 12.

• Or, 'and yet a man may be trained by habit as if the reason had not
so erred.'

* Cp. N. i:th. i. 13. § 9 ff.

Nature and Habit Prior to J{eason 293

The proof is that anger and will and desire are implanted in VII. 15
children from their very birth, but reason and understandinal
are developed as they grow older. Wherefore, the care of thq
body ought to precede that of the soul, and the training of the
appetitive part should follow : none the less our care of it must
be for the sake of the reason, and our care of the body for the
sake of the soul \

Since the legislator should begin by considering how the 16
frames of the childien whom he is rearing may be as good as
possible, his first care will be about mariiage — at what age
should his citizens marry, and who are fit to marry ? In 2
legislating on this subject he ought to consider the persons and
their relative ages, that there may be no disproportion in them,
and that they may not differ in their bodily powers, as will be
the case if the man is still able to beget children while the
woman is unable to bear them, or the woman able to bear while
tlie man is unable to beget, for from these causes arise quarrels
and differences between married persons. Secondly, he must
consider the time at which the children will succeed to their /C >

parents ; there ought not to be too great an interval of age, for 3
then the parents will be too old to deiive any pleasure from
their affection, or to be of any use to them. Nor ought they 1335 a
to be too nearly of an age ; to youthful marriages there are many
objections — the children will be wanting in respect to their
parents, who will seem to be their contemporaries, and disputes
will arise in the management of the household. Thirdly, and 4 O ■

this is the point from which we digressed, the legislator must
mould to his will the frames of newly-born children. Almost
all these objects may be secured by attention to one point.
Since the time of generation is commonly limited within the 5
^ Cp. Plato, Rep. iii. 410.

2 94 T^h^ Physical Foundation

VII. 16 age of seventy years in the case of a man, and of fifty in the
case of a woman, the commencement of the union should con-

6 form to these periods. The union of male and female when
too young is bad for the procreation of children ; in all other
animals the offspring of the young are small and ill-developed,

SI. and generally of the female sex, and therefore also in man, as
is proved by the fact that in those cities in which men and
women are accustomed to marry young, the people are small

T and weak ; in childbirth also younger women suffer more,
and more of them die ; some persons say that this was the
meaning of the response once given to the Troezenians —
[' Shear not the young field '] — the oracle really meant that
many died because they married too young ; it had nothing to

8 do with the ingathering of the harvest. It also conduces to
temperance not to marry too soon ; for women who marry
early are apt to be wanton ; and in men too the bodily frame
is stunted if they marry while they are growing (for there is

9 a time when the growth of the body ceases). Women should
(marry when they are about eighteen years of age, and men at
;seven-and-thirty ^ ; then they are in the prime of life, and the

10 decline in the powers of both will coincide. Further, the
cliildren, if their birth takes place at the time that may
reasonably be expected, will succeed in their prime, when the
fathers are already in the decline of life, and have nearly
reached their term of three-score vears and ten.

A Thus much of the age proper for marriage : the season of

the year should also be considered ; according to our present
custom, people generally limit marriage to the season of winter,

11 and they are right. The precepts of physicians and natural
philosophers about generation should also be studied by the

' Oniiuiiig fj jjiiitpuv.

J{egulations Concerning 'Marriage 297

parents themselves ; the physicians give good advice about VII. 16

the right age of the body, and the natural philosophers about

the winds ; of which they prefer the north to the south. 1335 b

What constitution in the parent is most advantageous to 12
the offspring is a subject which we will hereafter consider
when we speak of the education of children, and we will only
make a few general remarks at present. The temperament of
an athlete is not suited to the life of a citizen, or to health, or
to the procreation of children, anymore than the valetudinarian
or exhausted constitution, but one which is in a mean between
them. A man's constitution should be inured to labour, but 13
not to labour which is excessive or of one sort only, such as
is practised by athletes ; he should be capable of all the actions
of a freeman. These remarks apply equally to both parents.

Women who are with child should be careful of themselves ; 14
they should take exercise and have a nourishing diet. The
first of these prescriptions the legislator will easily carry into
effect by requiring that they shall take a walk daily to some
temple, where they can worship the gods who preside over
birth ^. Their minds, however, unlike their bodies, they
ought to keep unexercised, for the offspring derive their natures
from their mothers as plants do from the earth.

As to the exposure and rearing of children, let there be a 15 \)

law that no deformed child shall live, but where there are too
many (for in our state population has a limit), when couples
have children in excess, and the state of feeling is averse to the
exposure of offspring, let abortion be procured before sense -<L.
and life have begun ; what may or may not be lawfully done in
these cases depends on the question of life and sensation.

And now, having determined at what ages men and women 16
^ Cp. Plato, Laws, vii. 789.

7-

^)6 T\egulations Concerning Islarrlage

VII. 16 are to begin their union, let us also determine how long they
shall continue to beget and bear offspring for the state ^ ; men
wlio are too old, like men who are too young, produce children
who are defective in body and mind ; the children of very old

I ►r men are weakly. The limit, then, should be the age which is the
prime of their intelligence, and this in most persons, according to
the notion of some poets who measure life by periods of seven
years, is about fifty "^ ; at four or five years later, they should
cease from having families ; and from that time forward only
cohabit with one another for the sake of health, or for some
similar reason.

1 8 As to adultery, let it be held disgraceful for any man

■ or woman to be unfaithful when they are married, and called
13303 husband and wife. If during the time of bearing children
anything of the sort occur, let the guilty person be punished
with a loss of privileges in proportion to the offence '.

17 After the children have been born, the manner of rearing
them may be supposed to have a great effect on their bodily
strength. It would appear from the example of animals, and
of those nations who desire to create the military habit, that
the food which has most milk in it is best suited to human be-
ings ; but the less wine the better, if they would escape disease.

2 Also all the motions to which children can be subjected at their
early age are very useful. But in order to preserve their tender
limbs from distortion, some nations have had recourse to
mechanical appliances which straighten their bodies. To
accustom cliildren to the cold from their earliest years is also

♦ an excellent practice, which greatly conduces to health, and

3 hardens them for military service. Hence many barbarians

^ ktiTuvpfiiy. ' Cp. Solon, Fragni. 25 Bt-rgk.

* Cp. L.iws, viii. 841.

Education of Infants 297

have a custom of plunging their children at birth into a cold VII. 17

stream ; others, like the Celts, clothe them in a light wrapper

only. For human nature should be early habituated to endure

all which by habit it can be made to endure ; but the process ..

must be gradual. And children, from their natural warmth,

may be easily trained to bear cold. Such care should attend

them in the first stage of life.

The next period lasts to the age of five ; during this no 4
demand should be made upon tlie child for study or labour, lest]
its growth be impeded ; and there should be sufficient motion to
prevent the limbs from being inactive. This can be secured,
among other ways, by amusement, but the amusement should not
be vulgar or tiring or riotous. The Directors of Education, as 5
they are termed, should be careful what tales or stories the
children hear ^, for the sports of children aie designed to prepare
the way for the business of later life, and should be for the most
part imitations of the occupations which they will hereafter pur-
sue in earnest ^ Those are wrong who [Hke Plato] in the Laws 6
attempt to check the loud crying and screaming of children,
for these contribute towards their growth, and, in a manner,
exercise their bodies ^ Straining the voice has an effect
similar to that produced by the retention of the breath in
violent exertions. Besides other duties, the Directors of 7
Education should have an eye to their bringing up, and should
take care that they are left as little as possible with slaves. -,
For until they are seven years old they must live at home ; 1335 b
and therefore, even at this early age, all that is mean and low
should be banished from their sight and hearing. Indeed, 8
there is nothing which the legislator should be more careful to

^ Plato, Rep. ii. 377 ff. ^ Plato, Laws, i. 6^3; vii. 799.

^ Plalo, Laws, vii. 792.

298 Maxima Debetur Pueris 'Reverentia

VII. 17 drive away than indecency of speech ; for the Hght utterance

of shameful words is akin to shameful actions. The young

especially should never be allowed to repeat or hear anything of

9 tlie sort. A freeman who is found saying or doing what is

forbidden, if he be too young as yet to have the privilege of

a place at the public table, should be disgraced and beaten, and

an elder person degraded as his slavish conduct deserves. And

I since we do not allow improper language, clearly we should

10! also banish pictures or tales which are indecent. Let the

rulers take care that there be no image or picture representing

unseemly actions, except in the temples of those Gods at

whose festivals the law permits even ribaldry, and whom the

law also permits to be worshipped by persons of mature age

on behalf of themselves, their children, and their wives. But

11 the legislator should not allow youth to be hearers of satirical
/ Iambic verses or spectators of comedy until they are of an age

to sit at the public tables and to drink strong wine ; by that
time education will have armed them against the evil influences
of such representations.

12 We have made these remarks in a cursory manner — they
are enough for the present occasion ; but hereafter ^ we will
return to the subject and after a fuller discussion determine
whether such liberty should or should not be granted, and in

13 what way granted, if at all. Theodorus, the tragic actor, was
quite right in saying that he would not allow any other actor,
not even if he were quite second-rate, to enter before himself,
because the spectators grew fond of the voices which they first
heard. And the same principle of association applies universally
to things as well as persons, for we always like best whatever

7 ^ comes first. And therefore youth should be kept strangers to
' Unfulfilled promise J), but cp. viii. 5. § 31.

The Impressions of Early Tears 299

all that is bad, and especially to things which suggest vice or VII. 17
hate. When the five years have passed away, during the two
following years they must look on at the pursuits which they
are hereafter to learn. There are two periods of life into 15
which education has to be divided — from seven to the age of
puberty, and onwards to the age of one-and-twenty. [The 1337 a
poets] who divide ages by sevens ^ are not always right ^ : we
should rather adhere to the divisions actually made by nature ;
for the deficiencies of nature are what art and education seek
to fill up.

Let us then first enquire if any regulations are to be laid 16
down about children, and secondly, whether the care of them
should be the concern of the state or of private individuals —
which latter is in our own day the common custom — and in the
third place, what these regulations should be.

^ Cp. supra, c. 16. § 17.

^ Reading ov KaXais, with the MSS. and Bekker's first edition :
or, reading ou KaKuis, a conjecture of Muretus, which Bekker has adopted
in his second edition, 'are in the main right ; but we should also observe,
etc'

BOOK VIII

VIII. 1 No one will doubt that the legislator should direct his

attention above all to the education of youth, or that the

2 neglect of education does harm to states. The citizen should

be moulded to suit the form of government under which

he lives *. For each government has a peculiar character

which originally formed and which continues to preserve

fi«J^lf^ X Uj^ , it. The character of democracy creates democracy, and the

11 _^2/> character of oligarchy creates oligarchy; and always the

better the character, the better the government.

Now for the exercise of any faculty or art a previous

training and habituation are required ; clearly therefore

for the practice of virtue. And since the whole city has

one end,^ it is manifest that education should be one and the

same for all, and that it should be public, and not private —

not as at present, when every one looks after his own

children separately, and gives them separate instruction of tlie

sort which he thinks best ; the training in things which are of

4 common interest should be the same for all. Neither must

b ^ *fTf4 \^^ suppose that any one of the citizens belongs to himself, for

>J l^b r'''cy 'ill belong to the state, and are each of them a part

I i of the state, and the care of each part is inseparable from the

care of the whole. In this particular the Lacedaemonians

arc to be pi-aised, for they take the greatest pains about their

children, and make education the business of the state *.

2 That education should be regulated by law and should

be an affair of state is not to be denied, but what should

I Cp. V. 9. §§ 11-16. * Cp. N. Eili. X. 9. § 13.

i'

What is a Liberal Education^ 301

be the character of this public education, and how young VIII. 2
persons should be educated, are questions which remain to be
considei-cd. For mankind are by no means agreed about the
things to be taught, whether we look to virtue or the best life.
Neither is it clear whether education is more concerned
with intellectual or with moral virtue. The existing prac- 2
tice is perplexing ; no one knows on what principle we
should proceed — should the useful in life, or should viitue,
or should the higher knowledge, be the aim of our training ;
all three opinions have been entertained. Again, about the 1337 b
means there is no agreement ; for different persons, start-
ing with different ideas about the nature of virtue, naturally
disagree about the practice of it. There can be no doubt 3
that children should be taught those useful things which
are really necessary, but not all things ; for occupations
are divided into liberal and illiberal ; and to young children ,
should be imparted only such kinds of knowledge as will
be useful to them without vulgarizing them. And any ^
occupation, art, or science, which makes the body or soul or
mind of the freeman less fit for the practice or exercise
of virtue, is vulgar ; wherefore we call those arts vulgar 5 (\ • jl .■ ItZ ■
which tend to deform the body, and likewise all paid employ- '
ments, for they absorb and degrade the mind. There are
also some liberal arts quite proper for a freeman to acquire,
but only in a certain degree, and if he attend to them
too closely, in order to attain perfection in them, the same
evil effects will follow. The object also which a man 6
sets before him makes a great difference ; if he does or
learns anything for his own sake ^ or for the sake of his
friends, or with a view to excellence, the action will not
1 Cp. iii, 4. § 13.

3 02 IVhat is a Liberal Education^

VIII. 2 appear illiberal ; but if done for the sake of others, the very
same action will be thought menial and servile. The
received subjects of instruction, as I have already remarked ^,
are partly of a liberal and partly of an illiberal character.

3 The customary branches of education are in number four ;
they are — (i) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic exercises,
(3) musicj to which is sometimes added (4) drawing. Of
these, reading and writing and drawing are regarded as useful
for the purposes of life in a variety of ways, and gymnastic
exercises are thought to infuse courage. Concerning music

2 a doubt may be raised — in our own day most men cultivate it
for the sake of pleasure, but originally it was included in
education, because nature herself, as has been often said,
requires that we should be able not only to work well, but to
use leisure well ; for, as I must repeat once and again "^, the
-.3 first principle of all action is leisure. Both are required, but
leisure is better than occupation ; and therefore the question
must be asked in good earnest, what ought we to do when at
leisure ? Clearly we ought not to be amusing ourselves,
for then amusement would be the end of life. But if this is

4 inconceivable, and yet amid serious occupations amusement
is needed more than at other times (for he who is hard
at work has need of relaxation, and amusement gives
relaxation, whereas occupation is always accompanied with
exertion and effort), at suitable times we should introduce
amusements, and they should be our medicines, for the
emotion which they create in the soul is a relaxation, and

1338 a from the pleasure we obtain rest. Leisure of itself gives
pleasure and happiness and enjoyment of life, which are

5 experienced, not by the busy man, but by those who have

* § 3 supra. ^ As in vii. 15. §§ i, 2, and N, Kth. x. 6.

The TJse of Music 303

leisure. For he who is occupied has in view some end which VIII. 3
he has not attained ; but happiness is an end which all men
deem to be accompanied with pleasure and not with pain.
This pleasure, however, is regarded differently by different
persons, and varies according to the habit of individuals ; the ^
pleasure of the best man is the best, and springs from
the noblest sources. It is clear, then, that there are branches 6
of learning and education which we must study with a view
to the enjoyment of leisure, and these are to be valued
for their own sake ; whereas those kinds of knowledge which
are useful in business are to be deemed necessary, and exist
for the sake of other things. And therefore our fathers 7
admitted music into education, not on the ground either of its
necessity or utility, for it is not necessary, nor indeed useful "^
in the same manner as reading and writing, which are useful
in money-making, in the management of a household, in the
acquisition of knowledge and in political life, nor like drawing,
useful for a more correct judgment of the works of artists,
nor again like gymnastic, which gives health and strength ;
for neither of these is to be gained from music. There
remains, then, the use of music for intellectual enjoyment in
leisure ; which appears to have been the reason of its introduc-
tion, this being one of the ways in which it is thought that
a freeman should pass his leisure ; as Homer says —

'How good is it to invite men to the pleasant feast V
and afterwards he speaks of others whom he describes as
inviting

' The bard who would delight them all ".'

^ Or, ' to invite Thalia to the feast,' an interpretation of the passage
possibly intended by Aristotle, though of course not the original
rneaning. ' Od. xvii. 385.

304 Educational Studies

VIII. 3 And in another place Odysseus says there is no better way of
passing life than v hen

' Men's hearts are merry and the banqueters in the hall,
sitting in order, hear the voice of the minstrel ^.'

10 It is evident, then, that there is a sort of education in
which parents should train their sons, not as being useful or
necessary, but because it is liberal or noble. Whether this is
of one kind only, or of more than one, and if so, what they
are, and how they are to be imparted, must hereafter be

11 determined. Thus much we are now in a position to say that
the ancients witness to us; for their opinion may be gathered
from the fact that music is one of the received and traditional
branches of education. Further, it is clear that children
should be instructed in some useful things — for example, in
reading and writing — not only for their usefulness, but also
because many other sorts of knowledge are acquired through

12 them. With a like view they may be taught drawing, not
to prevent their making mistakes in their own purchases, or
in order that they may not be imposed upon in the buying

1338 b or selling of articles, but rather because it makes them
judges of the beauty of the human form. To be always
seeking after the useful does not become free and exalted

13 souls ^. Now it is clear that in education habit must go
; before reason, and the body before the mind ; and therefore

boys should be handed over to the trainer, who creates in
them the proper habit of body, and to the wrestling-master,
who teaches them their exercises.
4 Of those stateswhich in ourowndayseem to take the greatest
care of children, some aim at producing in them an athletic
habit, but they only injure their forms and stunt their growth.
1 Od. ix. 7. ' Cp. Plato, Rep. vii. 525 ff.

Physical Education 305*

Although the Lacedaemonians have not fallen into this VIII. 4

mistake, yet they brutalize their children by laborious exercises ^

which they think will make them courageous. But in truth, 3

as we have often repeated, education should not be exclusively

directed to this or to any other sirgle end. And even if we

suppose the Lacedaemonians to be right in their end, they do

not attain it. For among barbarians and among animals

courage is found associated, not with the greatest ferocity, but

with a gentle and lion-like temper. There are many races 3

who are ready enough to kill and eat men, such as the

Achaeans and Heniochi, who both live about the Black Sea ^ ;

and there are other inland tribes, as bad or worse, who all live

by plunder, but have no courage. It is notorious that the 4

Lacedaemonians, while they were themselves assiduous

in their laborious drill, were superior to others, but now they

are beaten both in war and gymnastic exercises. For their

ancient superiority did not depend on their mode of training

their youth, but only on the circumstance that they trained i

them at a time when others did not. Hence we may 5

infer that what is noble, not what is brutal, should have the

first place ; no wolf or other wild animal will face a really

noble danger ; such dangers are for the brave man '^. And 6

parents who devote their children to gymnastics while

they neglect their necessary education, in reality vulgarize

them ; for they make them useful to the state in one quality

only, and even in this the argument proves them to be inferior

to others. We should judge the Lacedaemonians not from 7

what they have been, but from what they are ; for now they

have rivals who compete with their education ; formerly they

had none.

1 Cp. N. Eth. vii. 5. § 2. " Cp. N. Etb. iii, 6. § 8.

DAVIS 3J

30'5' Gymnastic

9"III. 4 It is an admitted principle that gymnastic exercises should
be em])loyed in education, and that for children they should
be of a lighter kind, avoiding severe regimen or painful toll,

8 lest the growth of the body be impaired. The evil of
excessive training in early years is strikingly proved by

1339 a the example of the Olympic victoi'S ; for not more than two
or three of tliem have gained a prize both as boys and as men ;
their early training and severe gymnastic exercises exhausted

9 their constitutions. When boyhood is over, three years
should be spent in other studies ; tlie period of life which
follows may then be devoted to hard exercise and strict
regimen. Men ouglit not to labour at the same time with
their minds and with their bodies ^ ; for the two kinds of
labour are opposed to one another — tlie labour of the body
impedes the mind, and tiie labour of the mind the body.

5 Concerning music there are some questions which we have
already raised ; these we may now resume and cairy further ;
and our remarks will serve as a prelude to this or any other

3 discussion of the subject. It is not easy to determine the
nature of music, or why any one should have a knowledge of
it. Shall we say, for the sake of amusement and relaxation,
like sleep or drinking, which are not good in themselves, but
are pleasant, and at the same time 'make care to cease,'

3 as Euripides ' says ? And therefore men rank them with
music, and make use of all three — sleep ^, drinking, music —
to which some add dancing. Or shall we argue that music
conduces to virtue, on the ground tliat it can form our minds
and habituate us to true pleasures as our bodies are made by

* Cp. Plato, Rep. vii. 5,^7 b. ^ Bacchae, 380.

' Reading (with Bekker's 2nd ed.) virv(f), a correction which seems
necessary, and is suggested by vtrvov xai fjitOrji above.

Music 307

gymnastic to be of a certain character ? Or shall we say that VIII. 5
it contributes to the enjoyment of leisure and mental cultiva- '^
tion, which is a third alternative? Now obviously youth are
not to be instructed with a view to their amusement, for learn-
ing is no pleasure, but is accompanied with pain. Neither is
intellectual enjoyment suitable to boys of that age, for it is
the end, and that which is imperfect cannot attain the perfect
or end. But perhaps it may be said that boys learn music for 5
the sake of the amusement which they will have when they
are grown up. If so, why should they learn themselves, and
not, like the Persian and Median kings, enjoy the pleasure
and instruction which is derived from hearing others ? (for 6
surely skilled persons who have made music the business
and profession of their lives will be better performers than
those who practise only to learn). If they must learn music,
on the same principle they should learn cookery, which
is absurd. And even granting that music may form the 7
character, the objection still holds : why should we learn
ourselves ? Why cannot we attain true pleasure and form 1,339 b
a correct judgment from hearing others, like the Lacedae-
monians ? — for they, without learning vtiusic, nevertheless can
correctly judge, as they say, of good and bad melodies. Or 8
again, if music should be used to promote cheerfulness
and refined intellectual enjoyment, the objection still remains —
why should we learn ourselves instead of enjoying the
performances of others ? We may illustrate what we are
saying by our conception of the Gods ; for in the poets Zeus
does not himself sing or play on the lyre. Nay, we call
professional performers vulgar ; no freeman would play or
sing unless he were intoxicated or in jest. But these matters 9
may be left for the present.

X 2

3o8 The Pleasure of Music

VIII. 5 The first question is whether music is or is not to be a part
of education. Of the three things mentioned in our discus-
sion, which is it ? — Education or amusement or intellectual
enjoyment, for it may be reckoned under all three, and seems

10 to share in the nature of all of them. Amusement is for the
sake of relaxation, and relaxation is of necessity sweet, for
it is the remedy of pain caused by toil, and intellectual
enjoyment is universally acknowledged to contain an element
not only of the noble but of the pleasant, for happiness

11 is made up of both. All men agree that music is one of
the pleasantest things, whether with or without song ; as
Musaeus says,

' Song is to mortals of all things the sweetest.'
Hence and with good reason it is introduced into social
gatherings and entertainments, because it makes the hearts of
men glad : so that on this ground alone we may assume that

12 the young ought to be trained in it. For innocent pleasures
are not only in harmony with the perfect end of life, but they
also provide relaxation. And whereas men rarely attain the
end, but often rest by the way and amuse themselves, not only
with a view to some good, but also for the pleasure's sake, it
may be well for them at times to find a refreshment in music.

13 It sometimes happens that men make amusement the end,
for the end probably contains some element of pleasure,
though not any ordinary or lower pleasure ; but they mistake
the lower for the higher, and in seeking for the one find the
other, since every pleasure has a likeness to the end of
action ^ For the end is not eligible, nor do the pleasures
which we have described exist, for the sake of any future
good but of the past, that is to say, they are the alleviation of

' Cp. N. Eih. viLi3. §6.

Music and Morals 309

past toils and pains. And we may infer this to be the VIII. 5

reason why men seek happiness from common pleasures. 14

But music is pursued, not only as an alleviation of past

toi[j but also as providing recreation. And who can say 15

whether, having this use, it may not also have a nobler one ?

In addition to this common pleasure, felt and shared in by all 13i0 a

(for the pleasure given by music is natural, and therefore

adapted to all ages and characters), may it not have also

some influence over the character and the soul ? It must 16

have such an influence if characters are afl^ected by it. And

that they are so affected is proved by the power which

the songs of Olympus and of many others exercise ; for

beyond question they inspire enthusiasm, and enthusiasm

is an emotion of the ethical part of the soul. Besides, when 17

men hear imitations, even unaccompanied, by melody or

rhythm, their feelings move in sympathy. Since, then, music

is a pleasure, and. virtue consists in rejoicing and. loving and

hating aright, there is clearly nothing which we are so much

concerned to acquire and. to cultivate as the power of forming

right judgments, and of taking delight in good dispositions

and noble actions ^. Rhythm and melody supply imitations 1 S

of anger and gentleness, and also of courage and temperance

and of virtues and vices in general, which hardly fall short of

the actual affections, as we know from our own experience,

for in listening to such strains our souls undergo a change.

The habit of feeling pleasure or pain at mere representations 19

is not far removed from the same feeling about realities ^ ; for

example, if any one delights in the sight of a statue for

its beauty only, it necessarily follows that the sight of

'^ Cp. Plato, Rep. iii. 401, 402 ; Laws, ii. 658, 659.
' Cp. Plato, Rep. iii. 395.

310 The Harmojiies

VIII. 5 the oiiginal will be pleasant to him. No other sense, such

20 as taste or touch, has any resemblance to moral qualities ;
in sight only there is a little, for figures are to some extent of
a moral character, and [so far] all participate in the feeling
about them. Again, figures and colours are not imitations,

21 but signs of moral habits, and these signs occur only when the
body is under the influence of emotions. The connexion of
them with morals is slight, but in so far as there is any,
young men should be taught to look, not at the works
of Pauson, but at those of Polygnotus \ or any other painter
or statuary who expresses moral ideas. On the other hand,

22 even in mere melodies ^ there is an imitation of character, for
the musical modes differ essentially from one another,
and those who hear them are differently affected by each.

1340 b Some of them make men sad and grave, like the so-called
Mixolydian, others enfeeble the mind, like the relaxed
harmonies, others, again, produce a moderate and settled
temper, which aj^pears to be the peculiar effect of the Dorian ;

23 the Phrygian inspires enthusiasm. The whole subject
has been well treated by philosoiihical writers on this branch
of education, and they confirm their arguments by facts.
The same principles apjily to ihythms ^ : some have a
character of rest, others of motion, and of these latter again,

24 some have a more vulgar, others a nobler movement. Enough
has been said to show that music has a power of forming the

, character, and should therefoie be introduced into the education

25'of the young. The study is suited to the stage of youth, for

young persons will not, if they can help, endure anything which

is not sweetened by pleasuie, and music has a natural sweet-

1 Cp. Poet. 2. § 2; 6. § 15. ^ Cp. Plato, Rep. iii. 39S, 399.

' Rep. iii. 399 E, 400.

The Harmonies 311

ness. There seems to be in us a sort of affinity to harmonies VIII. 5
and rhythms, which makes some philosophers say that the soul
is a harmony, others, that she possesses harmony.

And now we have to determine the question which 6
has been already raised \ whether children should be
themselves taught to sing and play or not. Clearly there is
a considerable difference made in the character by the actual
practice of the ait. It is difficult, if not impossible, for
those who do not perform to be good judges of the perform- \
ance of others ^. Besides, children should have something a
to do, and the rattle of Archytas, which people give to their
children in order to amuse them and prevent them from
breaking anything in the house, was a capital invention,
for a young thing cannot be quiet. The rattle is a toy suited
to the infant mind, and [musical] education is a rattle or toy
for children of a larger gi owth. We conclude then that they 3
should be taught music in such a way as to become not only i
critics but performers. '

The question what is or is not suitable for different ages
may be easily answered ; nor is there any difficulty in
meeting the objection of those who say that the study of
music is vulgar. We reply (i) in the first place, that they 4
who are to be judges must also be performers, and that they
should begin to practise early, although when they are older
they may be spared the execution ; they must have learned
to appreciate what is good and to delight in it, thanks to
the knowledge which they acquired in their youth. As to 5
(2) the vulgarizing effect which music is supposed to exercise,
this is a question [of degree], which we shall have no
difficulty in determining, when we have considered to what
' <^- 5- §§ 5-8. * Cp. supra, c 5. § 7.

312 The Gentleman Musician

VIII. 6 extent freemen who are being trained to political virtue

should pursue the art, what melodies and what rhythms they

13il a should be allowed to use, and what instruments should be

employed in teaching them to play, for even the instrument

6 makes a difference. The answer to the objection turns upon
these distinctions ; for it is quite possible that certain methods

I of teaching and learning music do really have a degrading

I effect. It is evident then that the learning of music ought

not to impede the business of riper years, or to degrade the

body or render it unfit for civil or military duties, whether for

the early practice or for the later study of them.

7 The right measure will be attained if students of music stop
short of the arts which are practised in professional contests,
and do not seek to acquire those fantastic marvels of execution
which are now the fashion in such contests, and from these

8 have passed into education. Let the young pursue their
studies until they are able to feel delight in noble melodies and
rhythms, and not merely in that common part of music in which
every slave or child and even some animals find pleasure.

From these principles we may also infer what instruments

9 should be used. The flute, or any other instrument which
requires great skill, as for example the harp, ought not to hs

i admitted into education, but only such as will make intelligent
stuHents of music or of the other parts of education.
Besides, the flute is not an instrument which has a good moral
effect; it is too exciting. The proper time for using it is
when the performance aims not at instruction, but at the relief
loof the passions ^ And there is a further objection; the
impediment which the flute presents to the use of the voice
detracts from its educational value. The ancients therefore
' Cp. c. 7. § 3.

Musical Instruments 313

were right in forbidding the flute to youths and freemen, VTII. 6
although they had once allowed it. For when their wealth gave u
them greater leisure, and they had loftier notions of excellence,
being also elated with their success, both before and after the
Persian War, with more zeal than discernment they pursued
every kind of knowledge, and so they introduced the flute into
education. At Lacedaemon there was a Choragus who led la
the Chorus with a flute, and at Athens the instrument became
so popular that most freemen could play upon it. The
popularity is shown by the tablet which Thrasippus dedicated
when he furnished the Chorus to Ecphantides. Later expe-
rience enabled men to judge what was or what was not really
conducive to virtue, and they rejected both the flute and several 13
other old-fashioned instruments, such as the Lydian harp, the
many-stringed lyre, the 'heptagon,' 'triangle,' ' sambuca,' and 1341 b
the like — which are intended only to give pleasure to the
hearer, and require extraordinary skill of hand ^ There is
a meaning also in the myth of the ancients, which tells how
Athene invented the flute and then threw it away. It was 14
not a bad idea of theirs, that the Goddess disliked the
instrument because it made the face ugly ; but with still more
reason may we say that she rejected it because the acquirement I
of flute-playing contributes nothing to the mind, since toj
Athene we ascribe knowledge and art.

Accordingly we reject the professional instruments and alsO:i5
the professional mode of education in music — and by pro-j
fessional we mean that which is adopted in contests, for in this
the performer practises the art, not for the sake of his own
improvement, but in order to give pleasure, and that of a vulgar
sort, to his hearers. For this reason the execution of such
• Cp. Plato, Rep. iii. 399 D.

314 The Professional Musician

VIII. 6 music is not the part of a freeman but of a paid performer, and
1 6 the result is that the performers are vulgarized, for the end at
which they aim is bad^. The vulgarity of the spectator tends
to lower the character of the music and therefore of the per-
formers ; they look to him — he makes them what they are, and
fashions even their bodies by the movements which he expects
them to exhibit.
7 We have also to consider rhythms and harmonies. Shall we
use them all in education or make a distinction ? and shall the
distinction be that which is made by those who are engaged in
education, or shall it be some other ? For we see that music
is produced by melody and rhythm, and we ought to know
what influence these have respectively on education, and
whether we should prefer excellence in melody or excellence in

2 rhythm. But as the subject has been veiy well treated by
many musicians of the present day, and also by philosophers
who have had considerable experience of musical education, to
these we would refer the more exact student of the subject ; we
shall only speak of it now after the manner of the legislator,
having regard to general principles.

3 We accept the division of melodies proposed by certain
philosophers into ethical melodies, melodiesof action, and
passionate or inspiring melodies, each having, as they say, a
mode or harmony corresponding to it. But we maintain
further that music should be studied, not for the sake of one,
but of many benefits, that is to say, with a view to (l)
education, (2) purgation (the word ' purgation ' we use at present
without explanation, but when hereafter we speak of poetry ^^ we
will treat the subject with more precision) ; music may also

J- Cp. I'lato, Laws, iii. "joo.
' Cp. Poet. c. 6, though tlie promise is really uiifulfilled.

The Power of Music 315"

serve (3) for intellectual enjoyment, for relaxation and for VIII. 7
recreation after exertion. It is clear, therefore, that all the 1342a
harmonies must be employed by us, but not all of them in the
same manner. In education ethical melodies are to be preferred,
but we may listen to the melodies of action and passion whenj
they are performed by others. For feelings such as pity and 14
fear, or, again, enthusiasm, exist very strongly in some souls,
and have more or less influence over all. Some persons fall
into a religious frenzy, whom we see disenthralled by the use of
mystic melodies, which bring healing and purgation to the soul.
Those who are influenced by pity or fear and every emotional 5
nature have a like experience, others in their degree are stirred
by something wliich specially affects them, and all are in a
manner purged and their souls lightened and delighted. The
melodies of puigation likewise give an innocent pleasure to [
mankind. Such are the harmonies and the melodies in which 5
those who perform music at the theatre should be invited to
compete. But since the spectators are of two kinds — the
one free and educated, and the other a vulgar crowd composed
of mechanics, labourers and the like — there ought to be 7
contests and exhibitions instituted for the relaxation of the
second class also. And the melodies will correspond to their
minds ; for as their minds are perverted fiom the natural state,
so there are exaggerated and corrupted harmonies which are
in like manner a perversion. A man receives pleasure fiom
what is natural to him, and therefore professional musicians
may be allowed to practise this lower sort of music before an
audience of a lower type. But, for the purpose of education, g
as I have already said, those modes and melodies should be
employed which are ethical, such as the Dorian ; though we
may include any others which are approved by philosophers

^i6 The Dorian, Phrygian,

VIII. 7 who have had a musical education. The Socrates of the

9 Republic ' is wrong in retaining only the Phrygian mode along

1342 b with the Dorian, and tlie more so because he rejects the flute ;

for the Phrygian is to the modes what the flute is to musical

instruments— both of them are exciting and emotional.

10 Poetry proves this, for Bacchic frenzy and all similar emotions
are most suitably expressed by the flute, and are better set to
the Phrygian than to any other harmony. The dithyramb, for

11 example, is acknowledged to be Phrygian, a fact of which the
connoisseurs of music offer many proofs, saying, among other
things, that Philoxenus, having attempted to compose his
Tales '^ as a dithyramb in the Dorian mode, found it impossible,

12 and fell back into the more appropriate Phrygian. All men
^ agree that the Dorian music is the giavest and manliest. And

whereas we say that the extremes should be avoided and the
mean followed, and whereas the Dorian is a mean between the
other harmonies [the Phrygian and the Lydian °], it is evident
that our youth should be taught the Dorian music.

13 Two principles have to be kept in view — what is possible,
what is becoming : at these every man ought to aim. But
even these are relative to age ; the old, who have lost their
powers, cannot very well sing the severe melodies, and nature
herself seems to suggest that their songs should be of the

14 more relaxed kind. Wherefore the musicians likewise blame
Socrates, and with justice, for rejecting the relaxed harmonies
in education under the idea that they are intoxicating ; not in the
ordinary sense of intoxication (for wine rather tends to excite
men), but because they have no strength in them. And so

* Plato, Rep. iii. 399.

^ Retaining the MS. reading ^vQovs. Cp. Poet. c. 2. § 7»

3 Cp. c. 5. § 22.

and Lydian Modes 317

with a view to a time of life when men begin to grow old, VIII. 7
they ought to practise the gentler harmonies and melodies as I
well as the others. And if there be any harmony, such as the 15
Lydian above all others appears to be, which is suited to
children of tender age, and possesses the elements both of order
and of education, clearly [we ought to use it, for] education
should be based upon three principles — the mean, the possible,
the becoming, these three. , .^ .

';//x //;/,,, ^^-'

INDEX

Abydos, v. 6, §§ 6, 13.

Account, power of calling magis-
trates to, in Sparta exercised by
the Ephors, ii. 9, § 26; given
by Solon to the people, ib. 12,
§ 5; iii. II, § 8; and justly
claimed by them, iii. 11 ; when
exercised by all, a mark of
democracy, iv. 14, §§ 4-6 ; vi. 2,

§ 5 ; 4^ § 5-
Achaea [in Peloponnerus], v. 3,

§ II.
Achaea [PthiotisT, ii. 9, § 3.
Achaeans, the (in Colchis), viii. 4,

§ 3-

Achilles, iii. 5, § 9.

Acquisition, the art of, (i) the
natural,!. ^, %\2; 11, §§1,2;
includes war [in certain cases]
and hunting, i. 7, § 5 ; 8, § 12 ;
vii. 14, § 21 ; a part of house-
hold management, i. 4, § i ;

8, §§ 13-15; 9. §§ 1-8; io>
§§ 1-4; II, § 2; has a limit,
ib. 8, §14; 9, §§13-18: {\\)that
which is contrary to nature, in-
cluding {a) exchange which
goes beyond the need of life,
i. 9, §§ 2-5; 10, §4; II, §3;
{h} usury, ib. 10, § 4 ; 1 1, § 3 ;
{c) trade, ib. 9, §4; 10, §4;
II, § 3 ; {d) service for hire, ib.
II, §3: (iii) the intermediate
kind, ib. § 4.

Adamas, v. 10, § 18.

Admiral, office of (at Sparta),

ii-9. §33-
Aegina, iv. 4, § 21 ; v. 6, § 9.
Aenos, in Thrace, v. 10, § iS.

Aesymnetes, the, or dictators of
ancient Hellas, iii. 14, §§8-io,
14; iv. 10, § 2 ; always received
a guard, iii. 15, § 16.

Agamemnon, iii. 5, §9; 14, § 4;
16, § 10.

Agesilaus, King of Sparta, v. 7,
§3-

Agriculture, the employment fol-
lowed by the greater part of
mankind, i. 8, § 7; works upon,
ib. II, §7; ancient legislation
to encourage, vi. 4, §i S-io.

Alcaeus, iii. 14, § 10.

Alcyone, mother of Diodes the
Corinthian, ii. 12, § 8.

Aleuadae, the, at Larissa, v. 6,

§13.
Aliens, resident, how distin-
guished from citizens, iii. i, § 4;
obliged to have a patron, ib. ;
enrolled by Cleisthenes in the
tribes, ib. 2, §3; admitted to
citizenship at Syracuse, v. 3,

§13-

Alliance, an, how different from
a state, ii. 2, § 3 ; iii. 9, §§ 6-8.

Almsgiving, demoralizing effects
of, vi. 5, § 7_.

Alternation in office, character-
istic of constitutional govern-
ments, i. I, § 2 ; 12, § 2; ii. 2,
§§4-7; iii. 4, §§ 10, 14-17; 6,
§§9, 10; 16, §§2, 3; 17, §4;
vi. 2, §§ 2,5; vii. 14, §§ 1-5.

Amadocus (? king of the Odry-
sians), v. 10, § 24.

Amasis, king of Egypt, i. 12, § 2.

Ambition, a cause of crime, ii. 7,

320

Index

§§ 10-14, 18 ; 9, § 28 ; encour-
aged by the Spartan law-giver,
ib. 9, § 28; a motive of revolu-
tions, ii. 7, §§ 10, 18 ; V. 7, § 4;
10, § 5.

Ambracia, v. 3, § 10; 4, § 9; 10,
§16.

Amphipolis, v. 3, § 13; 6, § 8.

Amyntas the Little (? father of
Philip), V. lo, § 16.

Anaxilaus, tyranny of, at Rhe-
gium, V. 12, § 13.

Andria, ancient name of the
common meals at Sparta, ii. 10,

§5-
Androdamas, of Rhegium, ii. 12,

§14-

Andros, ii. 9, § 20.

Animals, the, intention of Nature
in denying speech to, i. 2,§§ 10-
12 ; under the dominion of man,
ib. 5, § 7 ; tame better than wild,
ib. ; only difter from slaves in
not being able to apprehend
reason, ib. § 9 ; their various
modes of life, ib. 8, §§ 4-6;
supply their offspring with food
in different ways, ib. § 10; cre-
ated for the sake of man. ib.
§§9-12; produce offspring re-
sembling their parents, ii. 3, § ();
cannot form a state, iii. 9, § 6 ;
lead a life of nature, not of
reason, vii. 13, § 12; the parts
of animals an illustration of the
parts of the state, iv. 4, §§ 7-9 ;
the offspring of young animals
often small and ill-developed,
vii. 16, § 6.

Antileon, tyrant at Chalcis, v. 1 2,
§ 12.

Aiitimenides, brother of Alcaeus,
iii. 14, § 9.

Antissa, in Lesbos, v. 3, § 12.

Antisthenes, iii. 13, § 14.

Aphytaeans, the (in Pallene),
vi. 4, § 10.

ApollodorusofLemnos, 1. 11, §7.
ApoUonia (on the Adriatic), iv. 4,

§5-

Apollonia (on the Euxine), v. 3,
§ 13; ib. 6, §9.

Appeal, a court of, allowed by
Hippodamus, ii. 8, § 4.

Appetitive principle, the, of the
soul, i.5, §6; iii. 4, §6; 16, §5;
vii. 15, §§ 9, 10.

Arbitrator, the judge should not
be made into an, ii. 8, § 13; the
middle class the arbitrators of
the state, iv. 12, § 5.

Arcadia, ii. 2, § 3; ib. 9, §§ 3, 11.

Archelaus, king of Macedonia,
V. ID, §§ 17-20.

Archias of Thebes, v. 6, § 15.

Archilochus, quoted, vii. 7, § 6.

Archons, the duties of, vi. 8, § 20 ;
the single Archon at Epidam-
nus, iii. 16, § i ; v. i, § 12.

Archytas, of Tarentum, viii. 6,
§2.

Areopagus, the, at Athens {see
Council of Areopagus).

Argo, the, iii. 13, § 16.

Argos, use of ostracism at, v. 3,
§ 3 ; the political changes after
' Hebdome,' ib. 3, § 7 ! the oli-
garchical revolution after the
battle of Mantinea, ib. 4, § 9 ;
the tyranny of Pheidon, ib. 10,
§ 6 ; enmity of the ArgiiJes to
the Lacedaemonians, ii. 9, §§ 3,
II.

Ariobarzanes, v. 10, § 25.

Aristocracy, characterized by
election for merit, ii. 11, §§9,
1 1 ; iv. 8, § 7 ; v. 7, § i ; dis-
tinguished from the perfect state,
as being a government of men
who are only good relatively to
the constitution, iv. 7, § 2 {but
cp. iii. 4, § 5) ; so called because
the be?t rule or the best interests
of the state are consulted, iii. 7,

Index

321

§ 3; not a perversion, iv. 8, § i ;
analogous to oligarchy (i) be-
cause the few rule, v. 7, § i ;
(2) because birth and education
commonly accompany wealth,
iv. 8, § 3; — to royalty as a
government of the best, ib. 10,
§ 2 ; preferable to royalty, be-
cause the good are more than
one, iii. 15, § 10; how distin-
guished from oligarchy and
constitutional government, iv. 7 ;
8; 14, § 10; v. 7, §§5-9(cp. ii.
ii> §§5-10); usually degener-
ates into oligarchy, iii. 7, § 5 ;
15, §11 ; iv. 2, §2; V. 7, § 7;
8, § 7 ; — causes of revolutions in
aristocracies, v. 7 ; the means of
their preservation, ib. 8, §§ 5-7;
aristocracy less stable than con-
stitutional government, ib. 7,
§ 6 ; liable to danger because
the rich have too much power,
ib. 12, §6; might be combined
with democracy if the magi-
strates were unpaid and office
open to all, ib. S, § 17 (cp. vi. 4,
§ 6) ; — magistracies peculiar to
aristocracy, iv. 15, § 10; vi. 8,
§§22, 24; aristocratical modes
of appointing magistrates and
judges, iv. 15, §§ 20, 21 ; 16, §8;
practice of trying all suits by the
same magistrates, aristocratical,
ii. 11, § 8; iii. i, § 10;— the
people naturally suited to an
ariiitocracy, iii. 17, §§ 3-7.

Aristogeiton, conspiracy of Har-
modius and, v. 10, § 15.

Aristophanes, ii. 4, § 6.

Arrhibaeus, king of the Lyn-
cestians, v. 10, § 17.

Art, works of, wherein different
from realities, iii. 11, § 4.

Artapanes, v. 10, § 21.

Artisan, the employments of the,
devoid of moral excellence, i. 13,

§§13,14; iii. 5, §5; vi.4, §12;
vii. 9, §§ 3, 7 ; artisans some-
times public slaves, ii. 7, § 22 ;
only admitted to office in de-
mocracies, iii. 4, § 12; often
acquire wealth, ib. 5, § 6 ; the
question whether they are citi-
zens, ib. 5 ; necessary to the
existence of the state, iv. 4, §§ 9,
21 ; not a part of the state, vii.
4, § 6 ; should be debarred from
the 'Freemen's Agora,' ib. 12,

§3.

Arts, the, require instruments,
both living and lifeless, i. 4;
some arts subservient to others,
ib. 8, § 2 ; 10, §§ 1-4; the arts
have a limit in their means
though not in their end, ib. 8,
§ 14 ; 9, § 13 ; both the means
and the end ought to be within
our control, vii. 13, § 2 ; amount
of knowledge which a freeman
is permitted in the arts, i. 11,
§ i; viii. 2, § 5; degrees of ex-
cellence in them, i. 11, §6; viii.
2j §§5,6; changes in, advan-
tageous, ii. 8, § 18 ; iii. 15, § 4 ;
the analogy of, not to be ex-
tended to the laws, ii. 8, § 24 ;
iii. 15, §4; exist for the benefit
of those under tliein, iii. 6, §§ 7-
9 ; by whom should the artist
be judged? ib. 11, §§ 10-14 (cp.
viii. 6, §§ 1-4) ; the arts aim at
some good, iii. 12, §1; justice
of the different claims to political
superiority illustrated from the
arts, ib. 12, §§4-8; law of pro-
portion in the arts, ib. 13, § 21 ;
the problems of the arts, an
illustration of the problems ot
politics, iv. I, §§ T-4; the arts
have to supply the deficiencies
of Nature, vii. 17, § 15.

Asia, ii. 10, § 3 ; iv. 3, § 3 ; the
Asiatics better fitted for slavery

322

Index

than the Hellenes, iii. 14, § 6 ;
vii. 7, § 2 ; cannibal tribes in
Asia, viii. 4, § 3.

A.ssembly, the, payment of, evil
effectsof the practice, ii. 7, § 19;
iv. 6, § 5 ; vi. 2, § 6 ; how they
may be counteracted, vi. 5, § 5;
— power monopolized by, in ex-
treme democracies, iv. 6, § 5 ;
14. §7; V. 5, §10; 6, §17; 9,
§ 14; vi. 2, § 5 ; 4, § 15 (cp. ii,
12, §4;v. ii,§§ii,i2); meet-
ings should be infrequent, vi. 5,
§ 5 (cp. iv. 14, §§4, 5); charac-
ter of, in the different kinds of
democracies, iv. 14, §§ 4-7 ; vi.
2> §§ 5-7; in oligarchies, iv. 14,
§§ 8-1 1 (cp. iii. I, § 10); pro-
vision in case of equal voting in
assemblies, vi. 3, § 6 : — at Car-
thage, ii. II, §§ 5-6; in Crete,
ib. 10, § 7 ; II, § 6 ; at Sparta,
ib. II, §6.

Astyages, v. 10, § 24.

Atarneus (in Mysia), ii. 7, § 17.

Athene, viii. 6, § 13.

Athens; payment of the dicas-
teries commenced by Pericles,
ii. 12, §4 (cp. iv. 6, § 5; vi. 2,
§ 6) ; evil effects of the practice,
ii. 7, §19; plan introduced by
Diophantus for the regulation
of the public slaves, ib. § 23 ;
maintenance at the public ex-
pense of the children of citizens
who had fallen in battle, ib. 8,
§ 6 ; the Solonian constitution,
ib. 7, § 6; 12, §§ 1-6; iii. 11,
§ 8 ; the Areopagus i^see Council
of Areopagus) ; the Court of
Phreatto, iv. 16, §3; effect of
the Persian war upon Athens,
ii. 12, §5 ; V. 4, § 8 ; viii. 6, § 11 ;
introduction of flute-playing at
Athens after the Persian war, viii.
6, § 1 1 ; the legislation of Draco,
ii. 12, § 13; the expulsion of the

tyrants, iii. 2, § 3; v. 12, § 5 ;
the use of ostracism, v. 3, § 3
(cp. iii. 13, § 15); number of
sailors in the population, iv. 4,
§ 21 ; new citizens introduced by
Cleisthenes, iii. 2, § 3; the tribes
redivided by him, vi. 4, § 17;
treatment of the subject cities by
Athens, iii. 1 3 , § 1 9 ; democrati-
cal governments forced upon the
allies by the Athenians, iv. 11,
§ 18 ; V. 7, § 14 ; great losses of
the nobility in the Peloponnesian
War, V. 3, § 7 ; difference of sen-
timent between the Athenians
and the citizens of the Piraeus,
ib. § 15; origin of the war be-
tween Athens and Mitylene, ib.
4, § 6 ; defeat of the Athenian
expedition to Sicily, ib. § 9 ;
government of the Four Hun-
dred, ib. § 13 ; 6, § 6; of the
Thirty, ib. 6, § 6 ; rise of Pei-
sistratus to the tyranny, ib.5, §9;
10, § 6 ; his trial before the
Areopagus, ib. 12, § 2; con-
spiracy of Harmodius and Aris-
togeiton, ib. 10, § 15 ; magistracy
of the Eleven, vi. 8, § 11.

Athlete, the temperament of an,
not suited to the life of tiie
citizen, vii. 16, § 12; viii. 4.

Athletics : see Gymnastic Exer-
cises.

Attalus, v. 10, § 16.

Ausones, the, or Opici, vii. 10,

§.^-
Autophradates, satrap of Lydia,

ii. 7> § 17-
Avarice, encouraged at Sparta,
ii. 9, §§ 13, 28, 37; at Carthage,
ib. II, §11; a frequent cause of
crime, ib. 7, § 19; 9, § 28 ; of
revolution, v. 2, § 5 ; 3, §1.

Babylonia, ii. 6, §6; Babylon, iii.
3, §5; BabyloiiianSjib.ig, §19.

Index

323

Bacchiadae.the, at Corinth, ii. 12,

Barbarians, the, do not distin-
guish the female and the slave,
i. 2, §4; generally under kingly
rule, ib. §6 (cp. iii. 14, §6);
regarded by the Hellenes as
natural slaves, i. 6, § 6 ; their
nobility not recognized by the
Hellenes, ib. § 7; prevalence of
barter among them, ib. 8, § 5.

Barter : see Exchange.

Basilidae, the, v. 6, § 5.

Bequest, freedom of, at Sparta,
ii. 9, § 14; should be forbidden
by law, V. 8, § 20.

Birth, illegitimate, not a dis-
qualification for citizenship in
extreme democracies, iii. 5, § 7 ;
vi. 4, §16.

Blest,theIslandsofthe,vii.i5,§4.

Body, the, ruled according to
nature by the soul, i. 5, §§ 4-7 ;
the body of the freeman not
always distinguished by nature
from that of the slave, ib. § 10;
the beauty of the body more
obvious than that of the soul,
ib. §11; the interest of, identi-
cal with that of the soul, ib. 6,
§ 10; the goods of, for the sake
of the soul, vii. i, §§8, 9; prior
to the soul, ib. 15, § 10; must
not be educated at the same
time as the mind, viii. 3, § 13 ;

4, §9-
Body, habit of, to be required in
the citizen, vii. 16, § 12 ; viii. 3,

§13-
Byzantium, iv. 4, § 2 1 ; v. 3, § 1 2.

Camicus, ii. 10, § 4.

Carthage, the constitution of,
analogous to those of Lacedae-
mon and Crete, ii. 1 1, §§ i, 5 ;
an aristocracy with oligarchical
and democratical features, ib.

§§5-10; iv.7, §4; V. 12, §14;
never had a revolution, ii. ri,
§§ 2, 15 ; y. 12, § 14; never
under a tyranny, ii. 11, § 2 {but
cp.v. 12, § 12); the kingspartly
chosen for ability, ii. 11, §§4-9;
influence of wealth, ib. §§ 9-13;
plurality of offices, ib. § 13 ;
the magistrates judges in crim-
inal cases, ib. § 7 ; iii. i, §§ 10,
II ; honours paid to military
merit, vii. 2, § 10; the con-
spiracy of Hanno, v. 7, § 4 ;
custom of sending out the
poorer citizens to the colonies,
ii. II, § 15 ; vi. 5, § 9 ; treaties
between the Carthaginians and
the Tyrrhenians, iii. 9, § 6.

Catana, ii. 12, § 6.

Cavalry, importance of, in the
ancient oligarchies, iv. 3, §3;
13, § 10; vi. 7, § I (cp. the
government of ' the knights ' in
E etria, v. 6, § 14).

Celts, the, ii. 9, § 7; vii. 2, § 10;

17, §3;

Chalcidian cities, the (in Italy
and Sicily), ii. 12, § 6 ; — (of
Thrace), ib. § 14.

Chalcis, in Euboea, iv. 3, § 3;
v. 4, §9; ib. 12, § 12.

Chares, the Athenian general,
V. 6, § 9.

— of Paros, a writer on Agri-
culture, i. II, § 7.

Charicles, leader of a party
among the Thirty at Athens,
V. 6, § 6.

Charilaus, king of Sparta, ii. 10,
§ 2; V. 12, § 12.

Charondas, used the word ofj-o-
a'nrvoi for the members of a
family, i. 2, §5; legislated for
Catana and the other Chalcidian
cities in Italy and Sicily, ii. 12,
§ 6 ; said to have been the
disciple of Zaleucus, ib. § 7 ;

3 24

Index

the first to make laws a_c;ainst
perjury, ib. § 1 1 ; famous for the
accuracy of his legislation, ib. ;
belonged to the middle class,
iv. 1 1, § 15 ; compelled the rich
to attend the law-courts, ib. 13,
§2.
Child, the, relation of, and the
parent, i. 2, § 2 ; 3, § 1 ; the
virtue of, ib. 13, §§ 3-12; ruled
like a king by the elder or
parent, ib. 2, §6; 7, § i ; 12,
§ 3; has the deliberative faculty,
but immature, ib. 13, §7 (^cp. vii.

15, § lo)-
Children, ought to be educated
with regard to the constitution,
i. 13, § 15; V. 9, §§ 11-15; viii.
I ; recognized in certain coun-
tries by their resemblance to
their parents, ii. 3, § 9 ; the
children of citizens who died in
battle reared at the public ex-
pense, ib. 8, §6; children, in
what sense citizens, iii. i, § 5 ;
5, § 2 ; education of the chil-
dren of kings, ib. 4, § 8 ; bad
education of the children of the
rich, iv. 11, §§ 4-S; v. 9, §§ ii-
15 ; licence permitted to chil-
dren in democracies and tyran-
nies, vi. 4, § 20 ; exposure of
deformed children, vii. 16, § 15;
way in which children should be
reared, ib. 17 ; they should not
see or hear anything indecent,
ib. §§ 7-11; viii. 5, §§ 19-21 ;
what their education should
include, viii. 2 ; 3 ; why they
ought to learn music and draw-
ing, ib. 3, § 2 foil. ; degree to
which they should carry musical
proficiency, ib. 6, §§ 1-8; must
not carry gymnastic exercise too
far, il). 4 ; must not labour with
body and mind at once, ib. § 9;
restlessness of young children,

ib. 6, § 2 ; their toys. ib. ; their

crying not to be checked, vii.

17' §6.
Children, Plato's community of,

see Women and Children.
Children, Guardians of, iv. 15,

§§9, 13; vi. 8, § 22.
Chios, iii. 13, § 19; iv. 4, § 21 ;

V. 3, § 12 ; 6, § 16.
Chones, the, in southern Italy,

vii. 10, § 5.
Chytrum, a part of Clazomenae,

Cinadon, v. 7, § 3.

Citizen, the, must both rule and
obey, i. I, § 2 ; 12, § 2; ii. 2,
§§4-7; II, § 14; iii. 4, §§ 10-
16; 5. §1 ; 6, §§9-ii; 13,
§ 12; 16, §§ 2, 3; 17, § 4;
vi. 2, § 5 ; vii. 9, §§4-8; 14,
§§ 1-8 ; must have leisure, ii. 9,
§ 2; II, §§ 10, 12; vii. 9, §§ 4,
7; 12, §7; belongs to the state,
viii. I , § 4 ; — necessity of defining
the word, iii. i, § 2 foil. ; children
and old men, in what sense
citizens, ib. § 5 ; 5, § 2 ; resi-
dence and legal rights, inade-
quate definitions, ib. I, §§ 4, 5;
not enough that the parents
were citizens, ib. 2, §§ 1-3 ; the
citizen must share in the ad-
ministration of the state, ib. i,
§§5-12; 2, §§3-5; 5; 13, § 12;
differs under each form of gov-
ernineat, ib. i, § 9 ; 5, § 5 ; 13.
§12; iv. 7, § 2 ; the question
about citizens admitted after a
revolution, iii. 2, §§ 3-5 ; — the
virtue of the good citizen : is it
identical with that of the good
man ? ib. 4 ; 5 , § 10 ; 1 8 ; vii.
14, § 8, the virtue of the citizen
in the perfect state, iii. 4, § 5 ;
13, § 12 ; — not all citizens who
are necessary to the state, ib. 5,
§2; vii. 9, §10; the artisans

Index

325-

not to be citizens, iii. 5 ; vii. 9,
§3; nor the sailors, vii. 6, §§ 7,
8 ; is the life of the citizen the
best ? ib. 2 ; 3 ; the character
necessary in the citizens, ib. 7 !
their habit of body, ib. 16, § 12;

viii. 3, § 13; 4-
Citizenship, rights of, conferred
on strangers in early times at
Sparta, ii.9, § 17 ; lost at Sparta,
by failure to contribute to the
common meals, ib. § 32 ; 10,
§ 7 ; given to persons of ille-
gitimate birth in extreme de-
mocracies, iii. 5, § 7; vi. 4, § 16;
exclusion from, sometimes con-
cealed, iii. 6, §9; easily pre-
tended in a large state, vii. 4,

§ 14-

City, the : see State.
Clazomenae, v. 3, § 15.
Cleander, tyrant of Gela, v. 12,

§ 13-
Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, v.

12, §§i, 12.
— , the Athenian, iii. 2. § 3 ; vi. 4,

§ 18.
Cleomenes (king of Sparta), v. 3,

§7.
Cleopatra (the widow of Perdic-

cas), V. 10, § 17-
Cleotimus, leader of a revolution

at Amphipolis, v. 6, § 8.
Clubs; at Carthage, ii. ir, §3;

at Abydos, v. 6, §§ 6, 13; hated

by tyrants, ii. 11, § 5.
Cnidus, V. 6, §§ 4, 16.
Codrus, king of Athens, v. to, § 8.
Colonies, of Carthage, ii. it, § 15;

vi. 5, § 9 ; oligai chies formed in

colonies by the first settlers, iv.

4, § s ; dissensions in, a cause of

revolutions, v. 3, §§ 11-14.
Colophon, of, iv. 4, § 5 ; v. 3,

§15-
Commerce, divisions of, i. ti , § 3 ;
its advantages and disadvan-

tages, vii. 6 ; — commercial trea-
ties, iii. 9, § 6.
Common meals, hostility of the
tyrant to, v. 11 , § 5 ; first estab-
lished in Italy, vii, 10, §§ 1-8;
how they should be arranged,
ib. §§ 10-12 ; the young not
allowed to share in them, ib. 1 7,
§ II ; — of the magistrates, vi. 2,
§ 7 ; vii. 12, § I ; of the priests,
vii. 12, §6; — (at Carthage), ii.
II; § 3;— (in Crete), ib. 5, §15;
the original of the Spartan, ib.
10, § 5 ; maintained at the public
cost, ib. §§7-10; — (at Sparta),
make property to some degree
common, ib. 5, § 15; badly regu-
lated, ib. 9, §§31, 32; TO, § 7;
anciently called ' andria,' ib. 10,

§5.

Community of women and chil-
dren, the, proposed by Plato,
ii. I, § 3; arguments against, ii.
3 ; 4 ; — of property, ib. 5 ; vii.
10, §9.

Confederacy, difference between
a, and a state, ii. 2, § 3; iii. 9,
§§ 6-8.

Constitution, regard must be had
to the, in education, i. 13, § 15;
v. 9, §§ 11-15; viii. I ; the best
constitution supposed by some
to be a combination of all exist-
ing forms, ii. 6, § 17 (cp. iv. i,
§6; 7, § 4; 9. § 7); the per-
manence of a constitution only
secured by the consent of all
classes, ii.9, §22; iv. 9, §10;
12, §6; v. 8, §5; 9, §§ 5-10;
vi. 6, § 2; 7, § 4; older constitu-
tions more simple than later,
ii. 10, § i; contentment with a
constitution not always a proof
of its excellence, ib. 10, § 12
{but cp. c. II, §§ 2, 15) ; in each
constitution the citizen differ-
ent, iii. I, §9; 5, § 5; 13, §12;

32<^

hidex

iv. 7, § 2; relation of the con-
stitution and the state, iii. i,
§ i; 3. §9; 6, § i; 7> § 2; iv. i,
§10; 3. §5; definition of the
word, iii. i, §1; 6, §1; iv. i,
§10; 3, §5; the constitution
the life of the state, iv. 11, § 3;
the people naturally suited to
each constitution, iii. 17; the
constitution sometimes nomin-
ally unchanged after a revolu-
tion, iv. 5, §§3,4(cp.v. I, §8);
the encroachments of the rich
often more dangerous to the
constitution than those of the
poor, iv. 12, § 6; life according
to the constitution no slavery,

V. 9> § 15;. vii. 5, §§ 1-3-

Corinth, iii. 9, § 9; tyranny of
Timophanes, v. 6, § 12 ; tyranny
of the Cypselids, ib. ID, § 6; 11,
§9; its duration, ib. I 2, §§ 3, 4;
family of the Bacchiadae, ii. 1 2,
§8.

Cos, v. 5, § 2.

Cosmi, the (in Crete), to the
Ephors, ii. 10, §§6-14.

Cotys, king of the Odrysians in
Thrace, v. 10, § 18.

Council of Areopagus, the, ii. 1 2,
§§ 2, 4; V. 4, § 8; 12, § 2.

Councillors and warriors, the two
highest classes in the stale, iv. 4,
§§10-17; vii. 4, §§4-7; 8, §7;
9, §§ 4-10.

Crataeus, one of the assassins of
Archelaus, v. 10, § 17.

Crete, favourable position of, ii.
lOj §§ 3, 12, 16; visit of Lycurgiis
to,ib. § 2 ; — the Cretan constitu-
tion the original of the Lace-
daemonian, ib. §§ 1-3; analo-
gous to the Carthaginian, ib. 1 1,
§ I ; the attention of the legis-
lator diiected solely to war, vii.
2, § 9 ; — the common tables in-
troduced into Crete by Minos,

ib. 10, §§2,6; called by the
Cretans, dvSpia, ii. 10, § 5 ; ob-
ject of the institution, ii. 5, §15;
better managed in Crete than at
Lacedaemon, ib. 9, §§30-33;
io> §§ 7-9;— frequency of sedi-
tion in Crete, ib. 10, §§ I4, 15 ;
— slaves in Crete forbidden
gymnastic exercises and the use
of arms, ib. 5, § 19; thePerioeci
in Crete well managed, ib. 9, § 3;
10, §§ 15, 16 ; governed by the
laws of Minos, ib. 10, §3; ana-
logy of the Cretan Perioeci with
the Helots, ib. § 5 ; — existence
of caste in Crete, vii. 10, § 1.

Custom, power of, ii. 8, § 24;
iv. 5. §3; vii. 13, §§ 11-13; a
sort of justice, i. 6, § 5.

Cyclopes, the, i. 2, § 7.

Cyme, in Aeolis, v. 5, § 4.

Cypselids, the, v. 11, §9; ib. 12,

§§3,4-
Cypselus of Corinth, v. 10, § 6 ;

12, § 3.
Cyrcne, vi. 4, §§ 17, 18.
Cyrus, king of Persia, v. 10,

§§8,24.

Daedalus, i. 4, § 3.

Dancing, viii. 5, § 3.

Daphnaeus, of Syracuse, v. 5,
§ 10.

Darius, son of Xerxes, v. 10,
§ 21.

Decamnichus, v. 10, § 20.

Deliberation, the right to share
in, essential to the citizen, iii. i ;
§§6-12 ; 2, § 5; 13, § 12 (cp.
vii. S, § 7).

Delphi, v. 4, § 5 ; the Delphian
knife, i. 2, § 3.

Dcniagoguts, the authors and
flatterers of the extreme demo-
cracy, ii. 12, §§ 4-6; iv. 4,
§§ 25-31; V.9, § 10; II, §§ II,
12; vi. 4, §§ 15-17; wnfiscate

Index

327

the property of the rich, v. 5,
§ 5; vi. 5, §3; often bring
about revolutions, v. 3, § 4; 5,
§§ 1-5; in ancient times became
tyrants, ib. 5, §§ 6-10; io,§§4,
6: — in oligarchies, ib. 6, § 5.

Demiurgi, magistrates atLarissa,
iii. 2, § 2.

Democracy, the government of
the many in their own interests,
iii. 7, § 5; 8, § 2; iv. II, § 17;
akin to tyranny, iv. 4, § 27; v.
ID, §§ 11,30, 35; II, §12; the
only possible government in
large states, iii. 15, § 12; iv. 6,
§5; 13. § 10 (cp- vi. 5, § 5);
the perversion of constitutional
government, iii. 7, §5; iv. 2,
§§ I, 2; Plato wrong in calling
democracy the worst of good
constitutions, but the best of
bad ones, iv. 2, § 3 ; insuffici-
ency of the common definitions
of democracy, iii. 8; iv. 4, §§ I-
6; more forms of democracy
than one, iv. i, § 8 ; 4, §§ 20-
22; II, § 20; 12, § 3; 13, § 12;
vi. I, § 2 ; the forms enumerated,
iv. 4, §§ 22-31; 6, §§1-7; 12,
§3; 14, §§ 1-7; vi. 4; growth
ot the last and worst form, ii.
12, §4; iii. 4, § 12; 6, §§9-11;
iv. 6, §5; v. 5, §§6-ii; 6,
§§6-8; 9, § 10; vi. 2, §§5-9;
4, §§ i5-2o(cp. V. 10, § 12; II,
§ 11); — democracy more stable
than oligarchy, iv. n, § 14; v.
I, §15; 7, §6 (cp. v. 3, §8);
causes of revolution in democra-
cies : anarchy, v. 3, § 5 ; vi. 4,
§ 17 ; demagogic practices, v.

3. §4; 5 ; 9, § i.o; vi. 5, §5;

disproportionate increase, v. 3,
§§ 6-8 ; dissatisfaction of the
notables, ib. § I4(cp.ii. 7, §§ 10,
18) ; long tenure or greatness
of office, V. 5, § 8 ; 8, '§ 7 ; the

means of their preservation, iv.
12, §4; 13, §§ 5-8; 14, §12 ;
v. 8 ; vi. 4, § 1 7 ; 5 ; democracy
(especially the extreme form)
apt to pass into tyranny, iv. 11,
§ 11; V. 5, §§6-io; 8, §7;
ID, §30; Plato censured for
supposing that the change is
necessarily to tyranny, v. 12,
§ 10 ; — Athens the champion of
democracy in Hellas, iv. 11,
§ 18 ; V. 7, § 14; the democratic
principle represented at Sparta
by the Ephoralty, ii. 6, § 17 ;
9, § 21; 10, §10; iv. 9, §9; —
characteristics of democracy :
liberty and equality for all, iii.
8, § 7 ; iv. 4. §§22, 23; 8, §7;
V. I, § 3; 8, §6; 9, §§14, 15;
vi. 2, §§ 1-4, 9; 4, § 20; the
use of the lot, ii. 11, §7; 12,
§ 3 ; iv. 9, §4; 15, § 19; vi.
2. §§5, 8 ; employment of a
large number of magistrates, ii.

11, § 14 ; short tenure of office,
v. 8, § 6; vi. 2, §§5, 8 ; pay-
ment of the citizens, ii. 7, § 19;

12, §4; iv. 6, § 5; 9, § 2; vi.
2>§§6, 7; 5, §6; carelessness
in the admission of artisans and
persons of illegitimate birth to
citizenship, iii. 4, § 12 ; 5, §§7,
8; vi. 4, § 16; licence allowed
to women and children, v- 11,
§11; vi. 4, § 20 ; — ostracism
oiiginally a democratic institu-
tion, iii. 13, § 15; V. 3, § 3;
democratical tricks to keep the
power in the hands of the
people, iv. 13, §5 ; suggestions
for the improvement of demo-
cracy, ib. 14, § 12; vi. 5, §§5-
II ; the magistrates peculiar to
democracy, iv. 15, § 11 ; vi. 8,
§§ 17, 24; democratical modes
of appointing magistrates and
judges, iv. 15, § 19; 16, § 8 ; —

328

Index

character and powers of the
assembly, ib. 14, §§ 1-7 ;— the
best material of a democracy,
ib. 6, § 2 ; vi. 4, § i ; the
position suitable to a democracy,
vii. II, §5; democracy always
supported by the sailors and
light armed, vi. 7, §§ i, 2.

Dcrdas (? King of Elymaea), v.
10, § 16.

Devices, political, of oligarchies
and democracies, iv. 13, §§ I-
S ; their inutility, v. 8, § 4.

Diagoras, an Eretrian, v. 6, § I4.

Dicaea, 'the Pharsalian mare,'
ii- 3, § 9-

Dicasteries, the Athenian, ii. 12,

§4-
Dictators : see Aesymnetes.
Diodes, ii. 12, §§8-ii.
Dion, V. 10, §§ 23, 28, 31, 32.
Dionysius the Elder, i. 11, §§ii,

12; iii. 15, §16; V. 5, §§8,

10; 7, § 10 ; 10, § 6 ; II, § 10.
Dionysius the Younger, v. 10,

§§23, 28, 31, 32.
Diophantus, ii. 7, § 23.
Directors of Education, vii. 1 7,

§§5) 7 ; of Gymnastics, vi. 8,

§ 22.
Dorian Harmony, the : see

Harmony.
Dowries, ii. 7, § 3 ; 9, § 15.
Doxander, v. 4, § 6.
Draco, ii. 12, § i.^.
Drawing, a branch of education,

viii. 3, §§ I, 12.
Dynasty, or Family Oligarchy :

see Oligarchy.

Ecphantides (the ancient comic
poet), viii. 6, § 12.

Education, may be directed to
a wrong end, ii. 7, §§ 8, 9;
must have regard to the
constitution, i. 13, § 15; v. 9,
§11; viii. I ; the great means

of uniting the state, ii. 5, §§ 18-
21 ; special, for the ruler, iii. 4,
§8 (cp. vii. 14, § 6) ; confers a
claim to pre-eminence in the
state, iii. 13, § i (cp. c. 9, §§ 14,
i.=i; X2, §§S, 9; iv. 8, §§2-5);
excellence of the Spartan
education, iv. 9, § 7 ; viii. i,
§4 {but cp. viii. 4, §§1-7);
bad education of the rich, iv.
II, § 6 ; V. 9, § 13 ; hostility of
the tyrant to education, v. 11,
§ 5 .; education necessary to
supplement habit, vii. 13, § 13;
17, § 15 ; the special business
of the legislator, viii. i, § 1 ;
wrong notions of education
prevalent in Hellas, vii. 14, § 15 ;
viii. I, § 3 ; 4, § 6 ; the periods
of education, vii. 17; viii. 4,
§§7-9; liccessily of a common
system of education, viii. 1, § 3
(cp. ii. 7, § 8 ; and iv. 9, § 7) ;
should education have an ethical
or a practical aim ? viii. 2 ; 3 ;
5; should it include music? ib.
3 ; 5 > 6 ; what instruments
and harmonies are to be used ?
ib. 6, §§8-i6; 7; education
not to be directed to a single
end, ib. 4, § 2 ; the proper
place of gymnastics in education,
ib. 3,§i3; 4; the education of
mind and body not to be carried
on togetlKT, ib. 4, § 9 ; writers
upon musical education, ib. 5,
§ 23; 7, §§ 2, 3, 8, II, 14;
musical education a kind of
rattle to older children, ib. 6,
§ 2 ; the three principles of edu-
cation, ib. 7, § 15 : — Directors
of Education, vii. 17, §§ 5, 7.

Egypt, iii. 15, §4; v. 11, §9;
vii. 10, §§ 1-6, 8.

I'^evenjthe, at Athens, vi. 8, § 11.

Elis, V. 6, § II.

Elymaea, v. 10, § 17.

Index

329

Empire, unnecessary to the hap-
piness of states, vii. 2:3; 14,
§§ 12-22.

End, the, the completed nature
of each thing, i. 2, § 8 ; has no
limit in the arts, ib. 8, § 14 ; 9,
§ 13 ; may agree or disagree
with the means, vii. 13, § 2 ;
contains an element of pleasure,
viii. 5, § 13-

Ephialtes, ii. 12, §4.

Ephors, the, a democratic element
at Sparta, ii. 6, § 17 ; 9, §§ 20-
22; 10, §10; iv. 9, §9; their
corruption and licence, ii. 9,
§§19-24; 10, §12; greatness
of their power, ib. 9, § 20 ; v.
II, § 2 ; the mode of their
election childish, ii. 9, §23;
have the right of calling the
magistrates to account, ib. § 26;
try suits respecting contracts,
iii. I, § 10 (cp. ii. 9, § 23 ; 11,
§ 7) ; established by Theopom-
pus as a check on the royal
power, V. II, §§ 1-3 ; corre-
spond to the Cosmi in Crete, ii.

10, §§ 6, 10, 12; to the magis-
tracy of 104 at Carthage, ib.

11. §3.

Epidamnus, ii. 7, § 23 ; iii. 16,
§1; V. I, §§ 10, II ; 4, §7.

Epimenides, of Crete, i. 2, §5.

Equality, how related to justice,
iii. 9; 12 ; 13, §§ II, 12 ; v. I,
§ 2 ; 9, §14; vii. 3, §5; 14.
§§ 1-6 ; (the true kind) no
longer desired in Hellenic
states, iv. 11, §§4-10, 19; v,
9> §§5-10; equality and liberty
the aim of democracy, iii. 8,
§ 7 ; iv. 4, § 22; 8, §7; V. I,
§3; 8. §6; 9' §14; vi. 2, §§i-
4, 9 ; the desire of equality a
cause of sedition, v. i, §§ 3-8 ;
2) §§2, 3; 3, § 2 ; when
attained creates contentment,

ib. 7, § 6 ; equality either
numerical or proportional, iii.
8; iv. 12, §§ 1-4; V. I, §§ 12-
16 ; vi. 3 ; states must not be
based on one kind alone, v. i,
§ 14 ; denied to the weak by the
strong, vi. 3, § 6.

Equality of property, proposed
by Phaleas, ii. 7 ; 12, § 12.

Eretria, iv. 3j § 3 ; v. 6, § 14.

Erythrae, v. 6, § 5.

Ethiopia, iv. 4, § 4.

Eubulus (tyrant of Atarneus), ii.

7. §17-
Euripides, v, 10, § 20 ; quoted,

i. 2, § 4 ; iii. 4,! § § ! v. 9, § 15;

vii. 7, § 8 ; viii. 5, § 2.
Europe, vii. 7, § 2.
Euryphon, ii. 8, § i.
Eurytion, v. 6, § 15.
Euthyciates, aPhocian, V. 4, §7.
Evngoras, tyrant of Salamis in

Cyprus, v. 10, § 16.
Evil, i. 2, § 12.
Exchange, (i) according to

nature (barter of necessaries),

i- 9. §§ 2-7; 10, §§3, 4; (2)

contrary to nature (retail trade),

i. 9, §§ 1-4, 9-12 ; 10, §4; II,

§3.
Executive element, the, in the

state, iv. 14, § 2 ; 15 ; vi. 8.
Experience, value of, ii. 5, § 16 ;

vii. 10, § 8.
Exposure of deformed children,

justifiable, vii. 16, § 15.
Extremes, danger of, iv. 11,

§§16-19; 12, §§4-6; vi. 5,

§§ 1-4-

Faction, frequency of, in Crete,
ii. 10, §§ 14-16 ; evil effects of,
in Hellas, iv. 11, §§ 16-1 S; a
cause of revolution in oligar-
chies, V. 6, § 9 ; less common
in democracies, iv. ii, § 14; v.

I, §§ 15. '6; 1, §6.

330

Index

Family, the, the villa^^e a colony
of, i. 2, § 6 ; (cp. c. 9, § 5) ;
composed of three relations
which are sanctioned by nature,
ib. 3, § 2 foil. ; 3, §§1-3; 12;
13. § 15 j governed by the elder
or parent who is their king, ib.
2, §6; 7, § I ; 12, §3; different
kinds of rule within the family,
ib. 12 ; the family apart of the
state, ib. 13, § 15; ii. 9, §5;
the state more self sufficient
than the family, ii. 2, § 8.

Family oligarchy : 55^ Oligarchy.

Family quarrels, a cause of
revolutions, v. 4, §§ 5-7 ; 6,

§ 14; 10. § .^■
Father and child, relation of, i.

2, §§ 1-5; 3. §§ 1-3; 12-

Female, the, by nature different
from the slave except among
barbarians, i. 2, §§3,4; subject
by nature to the male, ib. 5,
§ 7; 12, § i; 13, §7; tendency
of the female to produce off-
spring like the parents, ii. 3,
§ 9 :— the union of mr.le and
female formed in obedience to
a natural in.=tinct, i. 2, § 2 ; the
relation of male and female
part of the household, ib. 3, § 2 ;
12, § I. {See Woman.]

Finance, importance of, to the
statesman, i. 11, §13; the
finances of Sparta badly man-
aged, ii. 9, § 36 ; sugt;estions
for the regulation of state
finances, v. 8, §§ 15-19; vi. 5.

Four Hundred, government of
the, at Athens, v. 4, § 13 ; 6, § 6.

Freedom, supposed by Hellenes
not to exist among barbarians,
i. 2, § 4 ; 6, § 6 ; is a reason
why men claim authority in a
slate, iii. 9, § 14 ; 12, § 8; 13,
§§ 2-5. [i"£« Liberty.]

Freeman, the, i:i Ids relation to

the slave, i. 2, §§ 2-4 ; 3, § 4;
5 ; 6 ; not always outwardly
distinguished by nature from
him, ib. 5, § 10 ; rule over
freemen more noble than rule
over slaves, ib. § 2 ; vii. 3, § 2 ;
14, §19; will never willingly
submit to the tyrant, iv. 10,
§ 4 ; V. II, § 12 ; has a natural
right to rule, ii. 2, § 6 ; iii. 16,
§§2,3 ; must not be ashamed
to obey his lawful superiors, v.
9, §§ 11-14; vii. 3, § 2; 14,
§§ 1-5 (cp. iv. II, § 6); may
have a certain knowledc;e of the
arts, viii. 2, §§ 5, 6 ; may be al-
lowed to share in the pleasures
of music, ib. 5, § 7.
Friendship, weakened by com-
munism, ii. 4, §§ 5-9 ; the
motive of society, ib. § 6 ; iii.

9, §13; iv. II, §7 (cp. vi. 5,
§§7-11); implies equality, iii.
16, § 13 ; friendship among the
citizens hated by the tyrant, v.
II, § 5 ; friendship at Sparta,
ii- 5. § 7-

Gela, v. 12, § 13.

Gelo, tyrant of Syracuse, v, 3,
§5 ; 10, §31; 12, §§5,6.

General, the, learns command by
obedience, iii. 4, § 14 ; generals
often became dcmaijogues in an-
cient times, V. 5, §§ 6-10 ; have
often attacked their masters, ib.

10, § 24 ; wise generals com-
bine light-armed troops with
cavalry and heavy infantry, vi.
7, § 2. _

Generalship, a rare quality, v.

9, § 3-
Gerusia : see Council of Elders.
God, happy by reason of his own

nature, vii. 1, §10; 3, § 10 ;

alone able to hold together the

universe, ib. 4, § 8.

Index

331

Gods, the, supposed to be under
a king because mankind origin-
ally were, i. 2, § 7 ; 12, § 3;
their statues more beautiful than
ordinary human forms, ib. 5,§ 10.

Good, absolute and relative, vii.
13, §§5-8.

Good, the, the aim of the state,
i. I, § I ; ii. 2, § 7.

Good and evil, the sense of, cha-
racteristic of man, i. 2, §12;
made the test of freedom and
slavery, ib. 6, § 8.

Goods, the three kinds of, vii. i,
§§ 2-5 ; external goods not to
be preferred to virtue, ii. 9,
§35; vii. 1, §§5-9; 15, §6;
not the cause of happiness, vii.
I, § 10; 13, §8.

Gordius, father of Psammetichus,
tyrant of Corinth, v. 12, § 3.

Gorgias of Leontini, i. 13, § 10 ;
iii. 2, § 2.

Government, the Constitutional,
called in ancient times demo-
cracy, iv. 1 3, § 1 1 ; its rarity, ib.
7, § I (cp. c. II, § 16) ; one of
the true forms of government,
i''- 7» § 3 (cp- iv. 8, § i) ; liow
distinguished from aristocracy,
oligarchy, and democracy, iv. 7;
8; 14, §§8-io; V. 7, §§5-7;
vi. I, §3 (cp. ii. 11, §§5-9);
composed of the heavy-armed
soldiers, ii. 6, § 16 ; iii. 7, § 4 ;
17, §4; iv. 13, §10; the people
to whom it is adapted, iii. 17,
§ 4 ; suited to a large country
population, vi. 4, §14; cha-
racterized by the alternation of
rulers and ruled, i. i, §2 ; 12,
§ 2; ii. 2, §§4-7; II, § 14; iii.
4, §§ 10, 14; 6, §9 ; 16, § 2;
17, §4; vii. 14, §§ 1-5 (cp. i.
7, § i); by the combination of
thevoteand thelot intheelection
ol the magistrates, iv. 15, §§19-

22 ; gives the affirmative power
to the many, ib. 14, § 16 ; the
mode in which it arises, ib. 9 ;
causes of revolution to which it
is subject, v. 3, §§ 6-8 ; 6,
§§ 16-1S ; 7, §§ 5-9 ; means of
its preservation, ib. 8, §§ ic,
1 1 ; more stable than aristocracy,
ib. 7, §6.
Government, forms of, how to
be criticized, ii. 9, § i ; iv. i ;
the legislator must know all,
iv. 1, §§ 5-8 ; differ according
to the character of the supreme
authority, iii. 6, § i ; 13, § 5 ;
iv. 8, §§ 2-4; 14, § I ; are
based on partial justice only,
iii. 9, §§ 1-4, 15 ; 17, §6; V.

1, §2; vi. 3, §§1-4; are all
perversions of the perfect state,
iv. 8, §1 ; may be divided into
true forms or perversions, iii. I,
§§8-io ; 6, § II ; 7 ; 18; iv.

2, §§ 1-3; 8, § I ; their suc-
cessive changes in ancient times,
iii. 15, §§ 11-13; iv. 13, §§9-
12 ; Plato's theory of change
wrong, V. 12, §§5-18 ; influence
of increased population upon
forms of government, iii. 15,
§§ 11-13; iv. 6, §5; vi.5,§5;
the worst forms the most pre-
carious, vi. 6, § 4 ; common
error that forms of government
can be reduced to two — oli-
garchy and democracy, iv. 3,
§§6-8 ; sense in which this is
true, ib. 4, § 19; v. i, § 14 (cp.
vi. I, § 6) ; the people adapted
to each form of government, iii.
1 7 ; the magistrates suited to
each, iv. 15, §§ 11-13 ; vi. 8,
§§17, 24; thejudicial arrange-
ments, ii. II, § 7 ; iii. i, §§ 10,
11; iv. 16, §8; the mihtary
force, vi. 7, §§ 1 , 2.

Government, writers on, often un-

332

Index

practical, iv. i, § 5; have ex-
tolled the Lacedaemonian con-
stitution, ib. §6; vii. 14, §§ 16, 17.

Guardians, the, in Plato's
Republic : see Plato.

Gymnastic, like other arts, has
undergone improvement, ii. 8,
§18; includes various kinds
of training, iv. i, §§ i, 2.

Gymnastic exercises, forbidden
to slaves in Crete, ii. 5, § 19;
discouraged in oligarchies
among <;he poor, iv. 1 3, § 4 ;
one of the recognized branches
of education, viii. 3, § i ; carried
to excess at Lacedaemon, ib. 4,
§§1-7; suggestions for their
arrangement, vii. 12, §§1-6;
should be of a lighter kind for
children, viii. 4, § 7 : — Directors
of, vi. 8, § 22.

Habit, the strength of law derived
from, ii. 8, §24; one element
of virtue, vii. 13, §§ 11-13 ; 15.
§ 7 ; must go before reason in
education, viii. 3, § 13.

Hanno, v. 7, § 4.

Happiness, independent of exter-
nal goods, vii. I, § 10 ; 13, §8;
the happiness of the v/hole de-
pendent on the happiness of the
parts, i. 6, §10; ii. 5, 627;
vii. 9, § 7 ; hajjpiness propor-
tioned to virtue, vii. i, § 10; 8,

§5; 9. §§.^' 7; I.-.. §5; the
perfect happiness of the divine
nature, ib, I, § 10; 3, §10; the
happiness of men and states the
same, ib. 2 ; 3 ; the happiness
of states not dependent on em-
pire over others, ib. 2, §§ 14-18;
or on size. ib. 4, §§4-1 1 ; hajipi-
ness imjilies virtuous activity,
ib. 3, §§ 1-3 ; is the worthy
employment of leisure, viii. 3,
§§ 3-6 ; 5. §§ 9-15-

Harbours, should be separated
from the city, vii. 6, §§ i-6.

Harmodius, v. 10, § 15.

Harmonies, the, iv. 3, § 7 ; viii.
5, §§ 16-25 ; 7-

Harmony, the soul said to be, or
lo possess, viii. 5, § 25.

Harmony, the Dorian, iii. 3, §8 ;
iv. 3, § 7 ; produces a moderate
and settled temper, viii. 5, § 22 ;
7> §§8-13: — the Lydian ; re-
jected by Plato in the Republic,
ib- 7, §§ 9, 14; suitable to
children, ib. § 15 :— the Mixo-
Lydian ; has a sad and grave
effect, ib. 5, § 22 : — the Phry-
gian, iii. 3, § 8 ; iv. 3, § 7 ;
inspires enthusiasm , viii. 5 , § 2 2 ;
7, § 9 ; should not have been
retained by Plato, ib. 7,§§9-i3.

Ilebdome, v. 3, § 7.

Ileliaea, court of, at Epidamnus,

V. I, § J I.

Hellanocrates of Larissa, v. 10,
§ iS.

Hellas, influence of the climate
of, on the national character,
vii. 7, ^ij 1-4; natural superi-
ority of Hellenes to Barbarians,
i. 2, §4; 6, §6; iii. 14, § 6;
vii- 7> § 3 ; differences of the
various Hellenic tribes, vii. 7,
§ 4 : — barl.'arous laws among
the ancient Hellenes, ii. 8, § 20;
the Hellenes formerly under
royal rule, i. 2 , § 6 ; iii. 1 5 , § 1 1 .
iv. 13, § 10; changes in govern-
ment caused by the increase of
population, iii. 15, §§ 11-13; iv.
6, §5;. 13, §§ 10-12 ; vi- 5,
§ 5 ; rise of the heavy-armed
in importance, iv. 13, §10;
effects of the Persian war upon
Hellas, ii. 12, § 5 ; v. 4, § 8 ;
viii. 6, § II ; growth of the
Athenian empire in Hellas, iii.
'Sj § 19 i division of Hellas be-

Index

333

tween Athens and Lacedaemon,
iv. II, § i8; V. 7, § 14:—
smallness of the middle class
in later Hellas, iv. 11, §§7, 16-
19; lack of great men, v. 10,
§ 37 ; effects of the cultivation
of rhetoric, ib. 5, §7; wrong
notions of education, i v. 11, § 6 ;
vii. 14, § 15 ; viii. i, § 3 ; 2,
§ 2 : — rage for flute playing in
Hellas after the Persian War,
viii. 6, § 12.

Helots, ii. 5, §2259, § 2 ; 10,
§§4, i6-

Heniochi, the, in Pontus, viii.

4, §3-
Hephaestus, i. 4, § 3.
Heraclea, in Pontus, v. 5, § 3 ;

6, §§2,3, 7, 15; vii. 6, §8.
Heracleidesof Aenos,v. 10, § 18.
Heracleitus, v. ir, § 31.
Heracleodorus, v. 3, § 9.
Heracles, iii. 13, § 16.
Heraea (in Arcadia), v. 3, § g.
Hesiod,quoted,i.2,§5; v.io,§3o.
Hestiaea (the later Oreus) in Eu-

boea, V. 3, § 9 ; 4, § 4.
Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, v. 10,

§31; II, § 7; 12, §§5,6.
Hipparinus, v. 6, § 8.
Hippocrates, vii. 4, § 5.
Hippodamus, of Miletus, ii. 8,

§ I ; vii. II, §6.
Homer, calls Zeus ' the father of
Gods and men,' i. 12, §2; —
quoted,

II. ii. 204 ; iv. 4, § 27 ;
ib. 372 ; iii. 16, § 10 ;
v. 391-3; ib. 14, §6;
ix. 63; i. 2, § 9;
ib. 319 ; ii. 7, § 10;
ib. 648 ; iii. 5, § 9;
X. 224 ; ib. 16, § 10 ;
xviii. 376 ; i. 4. § 3 ;
Odyss. ix. 7 ; viii. 3, § 9 ;
ib. 14; i. 2, §7;
xvii. 385 ; viii. 3, § 9 :

— a passage is also cited, viii.

3, § 8, which does not occur in
our Homer.

Honour, inequality in, a cause of
revolutions, ii. 7, §§ 10-13, ^8-
20 ; v. 2, § 2 ; 3, §§ 2, 14; 4,
§§ 8-10 ; 12, § 18 ; the remedy
for this, V. 8, § 12; 11, §§26,
27 ; the citizen must share in
the honours of the state, iii. 5,
§9 (cp.c. 10, §§4, 5); honour
less desired by men than wealth,
iv. I3,§8; V. 8, § 16; vi. 4, §3
(cp. vi. 7, § 7).

Household management, the art
of, distinguished from the rule
of a master, i, i, §253, § 4 ;
7, § I ; iii. 6, §§6, 7; divided
into three parts, i. 3, §§ 1-3 :
12, § I ; how related to money-
making, ib. 3, §3; 8, §§ I, 2 ;
9, §§ I, 12-18 ; 10, §§ 1-4 ;
includes the natural art of ac-
quisition, ib. 4, § 1 ; 8, §§ IS-
IS ; 9> §§ 1-8; 10, §§1-4; II,
§§1-3; has a limit, ib. 9,.
§§14, 18; is more concerned
with virtue than with wealth,
ib. 13, § I ; the parts of men
and women in, different, iii. 4.
§17; exists for the benefit of
those under it, ib. 6, §§6, 7.

Husband and wife, relation of.
l^See ' Male ' and ' Female.']

Husbandmen, are sometimes
hunters, i. 8, § 8 ; would be
better suited for Plato's com-
munism than the guardians, ii.

4, § 4; make the best form of
democracy, iv. 6, § 2 ; 12, § 3 ;
vi. 4, §§ I, 8-10 ; furnish good
sailors, vii. 6, § 8 ; should not be
citizens, ib. 9, § 8 ; 10, §5 13,
14 ; nor admitted to office, ib.
9, § 9 ; should be excluded from
the 'Freemen'sAgora,'ib.i2,§3.

Husbandry, a part of the natural

334

Index

art of money-making, i. 8, § 3 ;
10, § 3; II, § 2.

lapygia, v. 3, § 7 ; vii. 10, § 5.

Iberians, the, vii. 2, §11.

India, vii. 14, § 3.

Inheritance, sale ofan, forbidden,
ii- 7. § 6 ; (at Sparla\ ib. 9,
§ 14 (cp. V. 8, § 20) ; the divi-
sion of an, may be a cause of
revolution, v. 4, § 4.

Instruments, best when made for
one use, i. 2, § 3; may be either
living or lifeless, ib. 4, § 2 ; are
used either in production or in
action, ib. §§4-6; are never
unlimited in the arts, ib. 8,
§§14, 15 ; the slave a living
instrument, ib. 4, §§2, 6.

Ionia, V. 10, § 6.

Ionian Gulf, the, vii. 10, § 5.

Iphiades, a party leader at
Abydos, v. 6, § 14.

Istros, V. 6, § 2.

Italus, king of Oenotria, vii. 10,

§3-
Italy, >ii. 10, §§ 2-6.

Jason, tyrant of Pherae,iii. 4, §9.

Judges, not allowed to commu-
nicate with each other, ii. 8,
§13; should not hold office for
life, ib. 9, § 25 ; necessary, even
in the first beginnings of the
state, iv. 4, §§13, 14; }he
various modes of appointing
them, ib. 16, §§ 5-7 ; provision
for an equal division of opinion
among judges, vi. 3, § 6 ; those
who inflict penalties to be
different from those who see to
their execution, ib. 8, §§8-11.

Justice, the sense of, peculiar to
man, i. 2, §12; the bond of
men in states, ib. § 16 ; iii. 12,
§9; i,^. §3; (cp. iv. 4, § 13);
sometimes defined as benevo-

lence, i. 6, §4; different in men
and women, ib. 13, §§ 3, 9 ; in
the ruler and the subject, ib.
§§2-8; iii. 4, §§ 16-18; con-
sists in equality, iii. 9, § i ; 12,
§ i; 13, § 12 ; vii. 14, § 3 ;
cannot be the destruction of the
state, iii. 10, § 2 ; cannot be
united with the love of conquest,
vii. 2, §§ 7-18 ; selfishness of
the ordinary notions of justice,
vi. 3, §6; vii. 2, § 14; all claims
to rule based upon partial and
relative justice only, iii. 9,
§§ 1-6, 15; V- I, §§2-6 ; 9,
§ i; vi. 2, § 2; 3, §§ 1-4.

King, the, not the same with the
statesman, i. I, § 2 ; ought to
be chosen for merit (as at
Carthage), ii. 9, § 29 ; 11, §4;
receives a special education, iii.
4, § 8 ; may be justified in put-
ting down his rivals, ib. 13^^
§ 22 ; v. II, § 27 ; is the
champion of the better classes
against the people, v. 10, § 3 ;
often supreme in religions
matters, iii. 14, §13; vi. 8,
§ 20 ; should behave a military
force? iii. 15, §§14-16; is
guarded by the citizens, ib. 14,
§ 7 ; v. 10, § 10.

King, the true, or natural supe-
rior of the citizens, iii. 13,
§§ 13, 24, 25; 17, §§5-8 ; vii.
3, § 6 ; unknown in later Hellas,
V. 10, § 37. {See Royalty.]

King, a, the Gods why supposed
to be under, i. 2, § 7 ; 12, § 3.

Kings, the, of Crete (in ancient
times), ii. 10, §6; of Carthage,
ib. II, §§ 3-6, 9, 10 ; of Mace-
donia, V. 10, §8; of the Molos-
sians, ib. ; 11, § 2 ; of Persia,
viii. 5, § 5 ; of Sparta [je^ Lace-
daemon] : — Kings, the ancient,

Lidex

337

sometimes became tyrants, v.
10, § 5.
Kniglits, the, at Athens, ii. 12,
§ 6; at Eretria, v. 6, § 14.

Lacedaemon ; frequent wars of
the Lacedaemonians with their
neighbours, ii. 9, §§ 3, 11 ; their
difdcnlties with the Helots,
ib. §§ 2-4 (cp. ib. 5, § 22) ; the
Messenian Wars, ib. § ii ; v.
7> §§3. 4 ) tlie conspiracy of
the Partheniae, v. 7, § 2 ; — of
Pausanias, ib. i, § 10; 7, §4;
vii. 14, § 20; — ofCinadon,v. 7,
§ 3 ; — of Lysander, ib. i, §10;
7, § 2 ; the putting down of the
tyrants, ib. 10, § 30; the subject
cities governed in the oligar-
chical interest by tke Lacedae-
monians, iv. II, § 18; V. 7,
§ 14 ; — friendship among the
Lacedaemonians, ii. 5, § 7 ;
agiiculture forbidden to them,
lb. §17; simplicity of life among
them, 113.6, § 17 ; iv. 9, §§ 6-9;
excellence of the Lacedae-
monian education, iv. 9, § 7 ;
viii. I, §4 '^bui cp. vii. 2, § 9 ;
viii. 4, § 1) ; music not com-
prised in it, viii. 5, § 7 ; Lace-
daemonian training only ad-
vantageous while other nations
did not train, ib. 4, §§ 4-7 ;
rage for flute-playing at Lace-
daemon after the Persian War,
ib. 6, § 1 2 ; error of the Lace-
daemonians in thinking the ob-
jects of their desire preferable to
the virtue which gained them, ii.
9> §35 (cp. vii. i,§5); spirit of
distrust in the Lacedaemonian
government, ii. 9, § 30 ; bad
management of the revenue, ib.
§ 36 ; frequency of corruption,
ib. §§19, 26; 10, §12; accu-
mulation of property, ib. 9,

§§ 13. 14; V. 7.-§§ 3, io(cp. V,
12, § 15) ; number of heiresses,
ii. 9, § 15 ; decrease in popu-
lation, ib. §§ 14-19; encourage-
ment of large families, ib. § 14;
expulsion of strangers, ib. 10,
§ 15 ; strangers admitted to
citizenship in ancient times, ib.
9, § 17; licence of the Lacedae-
monian women, ib. §§ 5-13 : —
the Lacedaemonian constitution
a combination of various lonns
of government, ib. 6, §§ ]6, 17;
9, § 22 ; — an aristocracy with an
element of democracy, iv. 7, § 4
(cp. ii. 9, § 20 ; 10, § 10) ; — re-
garded by some as a democracy,
by others as an oligarchy, iv. 9,
§§6-io; — often considered the
next best to the ideal state, ii.
6, § 16 ; iv. I, § 6 ; — its resem-
blance to the Cretan, ii. 10,
§§4-7;— to the Carthaginian,
ib. II, §§3-5 ; the arrangement
of the law-courts at Lacedaemon,
an aristocratical feature, ib. § 7 ;
iii. I, §§ 10, 11; the attention
of the legislator directed solely
to war, ii. 9, §§ 34, 35 ; vii.
2, §9; 14, §§ 16-22 ; viii. 4,
§§ 1-7 : — imperfections of the
Lacedaemonian monarchy, ii. 9,
§§29,30; II, §§ 3, 4; limited
powers of the kings, iii. 14, § 3 ;
V. 1 1 , § 2 ; their office an heredi-
tary generalship, ii. 9, § 33 ; iii.
14, §§4, 5, 14 ; 15, §§ 1,2 ; 16,
§ I : origin of their power,
V. ID, § 8 ; reason of its long
continuance, ib. 11, §2: — the
Gerusia criticized, ii, 9, §§ 25-
29; II, §§4, II ; V. 6, § II : —
faults and merits of the Epho-
ralty, ii. 6, § 17; 9, §§ 19-24,
26 ; 10, §§ 10, 12 ; II, § 3;
established by Theopompus as
a check on the royal power, v.

33^

Index

II) § § 2 , 3 ; — the office of ad-
miial, ii. 9, § 3.^ : — the com-
mon tables, why instituted, ib.
5, § 15: 6, § 17; 9, §§ 31,32 ;
iv. 9, § 8 ; not so well managed
as in Crete, ii. 9, § 32 ; 10,

§§7.8-

Lametic Gnlf, the, vii. 10, § 3.

Land, the, should be divided into
two portions, vii. 10, § 11 {but
cp. ii. 6, § 15) : Hippodamus's
division of, ii. 8, §§3, 12; —
should it be cultivated by the
owners? ib. 5, §§3, 18, 19; 8,
§§8-13; vii. 9, §§1-4; 10,
§§ 13, 14; at Sparta, had fallen
into the hands of a few, ii. 9,

§§i4> ^5-

Landowners, small, to be encour-
aged, vi. 4, §§ 8-10.'

Larissa, iii. 2, § 2 ; v. 6, §§ 6, 13.

Law, the, of Oxylus, vi. 4, § 9: —
Laws, the, ol Androdamas, ii.
12, § 14; of Charondas, ib.
§§ 6-8, II ; iv. 13, § 2 ; of
Draco, ii. 12, §13; ofLycuigus
(j'ffi Sparta) ; of Minos, ii. 10,
§ 3 ; vii. 10, § I ; of Phaleas, ii,
7 ; 12, § T2 ; of Philolaus, ib.
12, §§8-io; of Pittacus, ib.
§ 13 ; of Plato {see Plato) ; of
Solon, ii. 7, § 6 ; 1 2, §§ 1-6 ; iii.
II, §8; of Zaleucus, ii. 12, §6.

Law, the, derives its force from
habit, ii. 8, § 24 ; 'a surety of
justice' (Lycophron), iii. 9, § 8 ;
may have a party character, ib.
10, §5; II, §20; only exists
for equals, ib. 13, §§13, 14;
16, §§2, 3 ; must be supported
by force in the ruler, ib. 15,
§§ 14, 15 ; is a mean, ib. 16,
§ 8 ; is order, vii. 4, § 8 ; is
without passion, iii. 15, § 5 ;
the rule of, the rule of God, ib.
16, §5 (cp. i. 2, §§15, 16);-
should the law or the monarch

rule? iii. 15, §§i-io; 16; —
should the law ever be changed ?
ii. 8, §§ 16-25 (cp. iii. 15, §§6,
7; 16, § 5) : — Laws, the, cannot
provide for circumstances, ii. 8.
§ 22; iii. II, § 19; 15, §§4-8 ;
16, §§4-13; should be sui>reme,
and the magistrates only their
interpreters, iii. 11, §19; 16,
§§ 5, 10-12 ; iv. 4, § 31 ; are
relative to the constitution, but
distinct from it, iii. 11, § 20 ;
iv. I, §§9, 10; must be obeyed
and must be good, iv. 4, § 30 ;
8, §§.=;, 6.

Law, the, or convention, by which
prisoners of war become slaves,
i- 6, §§ I, 5-

Law, unwritten, importance of,
iii. i6, § 9.

Laws, the, of Hellenic citiesgene-
rally in a chaotic state, vii. 2,§ 9.

Laws, the, of Plato {see Plato).

Law Courts, the, oligarchical
and democratical tricks with,
iv. 9, § 2 ; 13, §§2, 5 ; 14,
§ 12; the rich should beencour-
aged to attend, even in demo-
cracies, vi. 5, § 5 ; used by the
demagogues to ruin the rich, v.
3, § 4; .5, §§ i-.S ; vi. 5, §3-

Law courts, the possible varieties
of, iv. 16.

Legislator, the, must have regard
to the country and the people,
ii. 6, § 7 ; 7, §§ 14-17 ; must
pay attention to the foreign re-
lations of the state, ib. ; ib. ;
vii. 2, § i8; must secure leisure
for his citizens, ii. 9, § 2 ; 11,
§§ 10, 12 ; vii. 9, §§ 3, 7 (cp.
vii. 12, § 7); must not trust to
accidents, ii. n, §§ 15, 17; vii.
i.^! §§S-io; must regard the
common good, iii. 13, § 12;
ought not to want such a princi-
ple as ostraci.sni, ib. § 23 ; v. 3,

Index

337

§3; mnst know all possible
forms of state, iv. i , § 8 ; and
the causes of their preservation
and destruction, V. 9, §9; vi. 5,
§ 2 ; must be able to reform as
well as to create a state, iv. i ,
§ 7 ; should favour the middle
class, ib. 12, § 4 ; must consider
the deliberative, executive, and
judicial elements in relation to
the constitution of each state,
ib. 14, § I ; must be modest in
his designs, ii. 6, § 7 ; viii. 4,
§ 2 ; should not make conquest
the aim of his slate, vii. 2 ;
must give all the citizens a share
in the administration, ib. 14,
§ 4 ; must have a care of edu-
cation, ib. §§ i, 8; 15, §8; viii.
I, §§ I, 2 ; must not neglect
physical education, vii. 16, § i.

Legislators, the best, belonged to
the middle class, iv. 11, § 15.

Leisure, the, of the citizens, the
first object of the legislator, ii.
9, § 2 ; II, §§ 10-12 ; vii. 9,
§§3,4. 7 (cp.vii. 12, §7); the
citizen must know the right uses
of, vii. 14, §§ 13-22 ; viii. 3:5,
§ 4; needed for virtue, vii. 9, § 4.

Leontini. v. 10, § 6 ; 12, § 13.

Lesbos, iii. 13, § 19.

Leucas, ii. 7, § 7.

Liberty, supposed to be the
characteristic feature of demo-
cracy, iii. 8, § 7 ; iv. 4, §§ 22,
23; 8, §7; V. I, §3; 8, §6;
9, §§ 14, 15 ; vi. 2, §§ 1-4, 9 ;
4, § 20 ; must not be confused
with licence, v. 9, § 15 ; — should
be held out as a reward to slaves,
vii. 10. § 14.

Life, action, not production, i. 4,
§ 5 ; pleasure of, iii. 6, § 5 ; is
the speculative or the practical,
better? vii. 2, §§5-18; 3 :—
divided by the poets into periods

DAVIS

of seven years, ib. x6, § 17; 17,

§ 15 : — simplicity of, at Sparta,

ii. 6, § 17 ; iv. 9, § 7.
Life, the good, not desired by

mankind in general, i. 9, § 16 ;

the object of the existence of the

state, ib. 2, § 8 ; iii. 9, §§ 6-14;

iv. 4, § 12 ; vii. i, § i ; 2, §17;

4, § 1 1 ; 8, § 4 ; is it the same

for states and for individuals ?

vii. I ; 2 ; 3, § 10.
Limit, a, necessary in the arts, i.

8, § 14; 9. § 13; iii- 13. §21 ;

vii. 4, § 10 ; in population, ii.

6, §§6, 10; 7, §5 ; 9> § 19 ;

vii. 4, §§4-11; 5, §1; 16,

§ 15 ; in the state, ii. 6, § 7 ;

iii. 3> §§4-7; vii. 4; 5, § ^ ;

in wealth, j. 8, §14; 9, §14;

ii. 6,§§S, 9; 7, §§4-8; vii. 5,

§ I.
Locri (in Italy), ii. 7, § 6; 12,

§6; V. 7, § 10.
Lot, use of the, characteristic of

democracy, ii. II, § 7; 12, §3;

iv. 9, §4; 15, § 19; vi. 2, §§5,

8 ; modes in which it may be

used in elections of magistrates,

iv. 15, §§ 16-22.
Lycophron, the Sophist, iii. 9,

§ ^- .
Lyctus, in Crete, ii. 10, § 2.

Lycurgus,the author of the Lace-
daemonian constitution, ii. 10,
§ 2 ; 12, § I ; was the guardian
of Charilaus, ib. 10, § 2 ; his
visit to Crete, ib. ; his failure to
bringthe women under his laws,
ib. 9, § § 1 1 , 1 2 ; said by some to
have been a disciple of Thales,
ib. 12, §7; belonged to the
middle class, iv. 11, § 15.

Lydian Harmony, the : see Har-
mony.

Lygdamis, tyrant of Naxos, v. 6,

§1.
Lysander, v. i, § 10 ; 7, § 2.

338

hidex

Macedonia, V. lo, §8; vii. 2,§ lo.

Magistrates, power of calling to
account \_see Account, power of
callingmagistratestoj ; division
of law-suits among the Lace-
daemonians and Carthaginian
magistrates, ii. ii, §7; iii. 1,
§ 10 (cp. iv. 14, § 3) ; election
of magistrates by merit charac-
teristic of aristocracy, ii. 11,
§§7, 9; iv. 15, §10; — for
wealth, of oligarchy, ii. 6, § 19;

11, §9 ; iv. 15, § 10; choice by
lot, of democracy, ii. 6, § 19 ;

12, §3; iv. 15, § 19; vi. 2,
§§ 5, 9 ; must be taken from
those who carry arms, ii. 8, § 9 ;
iv. 13, § 9; are very numerous
in democracies, ii. 11, § 14;
ought to be only the guardians
and interpreters of the law, iii.
ir, §19; 16, §§5, 10-12 ; iv.
4, § 31 ; character and powers of
the magistrates in aristocracies,
iv. 14, § 10; 15, § 13; vi. 8,
§ 22 ; in constitutional govern-
ments, iv. 14, §§ 10, 16; in
democracies, ib. §§1-7; 15,
§§ 10-14; yi- 2, §§ 5-9 ; 8,
§§17, 24; in oligarchies, iv.

14, §§8,9; 15, §§ 10-14; vi.
8, §§17, 24; the magistrates
peculiar to each constitution, iv.

15, §§ 11-13; vi. 8, §§ 17, 24 ;
definition of the term 'magis-
trate,' iv. 15, §§ 1-4; should he
hold more tlian one office ? ii.

11, §13; iv. 15, §§ 5-10; vi,
8, § ■: ; the various modes of
appointment, iv. 15, §§ 14-21 ;
vi. 5, §11; popular election
dangerous, v. 5, § 10 ; 6, § 6 ;
the magistrates should not be
allowed to make money, ib. 3,
§ I ; 8, § 15 ; vi. 7, § 5 (cp. v.

12, § 14) ; undue power ac-
quired by thern a cause of revo-

lution, v. 3, §3; 4, §§8-ii ;
great authority of the ancient
magistrates, iii. 16, § i ; v. I,
§10; 5, §8; 10, §5 ; vi. 2,
§ 8 ; the magistrates may pre-
vent revolutions by prudence, v.
8, § 8 ; manner in which they
should act in oligarchies, vi.
5,§§io, 11; 7, §§4-7; enume-
ration of the different magis-
trates required by states, vi. 8 ;
the magistrates must know the
characters of their fellow-
citizens, vii. 4, § 13 ; must sup-
press obscenity, ib. 17, § 10 : —
Magistrates, certain, required
by law to take their meals to-
gether, vi. 2, § 7 ; vii. 12, § 2.
Magnesia (on the Maeander), iv.

Z, § 3-

Magnesians, the, ii. 9, § 3.

Majority, the (in a state), diffi-
culties about the power which
should be possessed by, iii. 10 ;

II ; 13. §§4-7 ; vi. 3.

Male and female, reason for the
union of, i. 2, § 2 ; the relation
of, part of the household, ib. 3,
§ 2 ; 12, § I.

Male, the, intended by nature to
rule over the female, i. 5, § 7 ;
12, §1.

Malians, the, iv. 13, §9.

Man a political animal, i. 2,
§§9. 14, 1.5 ; iii- 6, § 3 ; has
a natural wish for posterity, i.
2, § 2 ; alone has the faculty of
speech, ib. § 10; — the sense of
good and evil, ib. §12; — the
power of reason, vii. 13, §12;
the worst of animals when not
controlled by law and justice,
i- 2, §§ 15, 16; must allow
reason to direct nature and
habit, vii. 13, §§11-13; should
give the soul rule over the body,
'• it §§4-7; the plants and

Index

339

animals created for his sake, ib.
8, § 12 : — Man, tlie virtue of
the, different from that of the
woman, ib. 13, §§ 3, 9-11 ; iii.
4, § 16: — Men are imlimited
in their desires, i. 9, §§ i6-i8 ;
ii- 7) §§8) 19; ai's wicked by
nature, ii. 5, § 12; are more
desirous of gain than of honour,
iv. 13, §8; V. 8, § 16; vi. 4,
§ 3 ; are satisfied with a mode-
rate amount of virtue, vii. i,
§ 5 : — Men, the first, were or-
dinary, foolish people, ii. 8,
§21.

Mantinea, battle of, v. 4, § 9 ;
government by representation
at, vi. 4, § 4.

Marriage, regulations respecting,
vii. 16 ; — the marriage relation,
i- 2, §2; 3, §§ 1-3; 12; iii. 4,
§6.

Massalia, v. 6, §§2,3; vi. 7,

§4-

Master, the, in relation to the
slave, i. 2, §§ 2-5 ; 3, §§ 1-3 ;
12, § i; 13, §§7, 12-14 ; has a
common interest with the slave,
ib. 6, § 10; iii. 6, § fi ; vii. 14,
§ 6 ; ought to train the slave in
virtue, i. 13, § 14; — the science
peculiar to, ib. 3, § 4; 7, §§ 2-
5 ; 13, § 14;— the rule of, ib.
3, § 4 ; iii. 4, § 11; vii. 14, §6;
wrongly supposed [by Plato] to
be different from political rule,
i- I, § 2 ; 3, §4-

Mean, importance of the, in
states, iv. 11; v. 9, § 6 ; in
education, viii. 6, § 7 ; 7, § 15.

Mechanic, the: see Artisan.

Medes, the, iii. 13, § 19 ; viii.

5;§5-
Medicine, i. 9, §§13, 17; 10,

§§3, 4; ii. 8, §18. {See

Physician.)
Megacles, v. 10, § 19.

Mcgara, iii, 9, § 9 ; iv. 15, § 15;

V. 3, § 5; 5, §§4, 9-
Messenian War, the (Second), v.

7, § 3-

Messenians, the, ii. 9, §§ 3, 11.

Metics : see Aliens.

Midas, i. 9, § li.

Middle class, virtues of the, iv.
II; 12; the middle-class state
the best, ib. 11, §§8-15; 12,
§ 4 ; V. 8, § 14 ; 9, § 6 ; small-
ness of the middle class in
ancient states, iv. 13, §11.

Might and right, i. 6, § 3 ; vi. 3,
§6; vii. 2, §13.

Miletus, i. 1 1, § 9 ; v. 5, § 8.

Minos, ii. 10, § 3; vii. 10, §§ 2,
6.

Mithridates (?Satrap of Pontus),
V. 10, § 25.

Mitylene, iii. 14, §10; v. 4, §§5,
6 ; ID, § 19.

Mixo-Lydian Harmony, the: see
Harmony.

Mnaseas, a Phocian, v. 4, § 7.

Mnason, a Phocian, v. 4, § 7.

Moderation in poliUcs, necessary
for the salvation 61 the state, iv.
II, §§ 16-19; V. 9. §6; vi. 5,
§2.

Molossians, the, in Epirus, v. 10,
§8; IT, § 2.

Monarchy, arguments for and
against, iii. 15-17-

Monarchy : see King, Royalty,
and Tyranny.

Money, origin of, i. 9, § 8 ; its
conventional nature, ib. § 11 ;
ought not to be made from
money, ib. 10, § 5.

Money-making, the art of, how
related to household manage-
ment, i. 3. § 3 ; 8, §§ I, 2 ; 9,
§§ I, 12-18; ID, §§ 1-4; the
natural kind, ib. 8, §§ 3-15 ; 9,
§§i-8; 10, §§1-4; II, §§ I,
2; the unnatural, ib. 9, § 1 foil.;

Z 2

340

Index

10, §§ 4, 5 ; II, §3; tlie inter-
mediate, ib. II, §4; tile un-
nntiiral pursues its end williout
limit, ib. 9, §§ i.V'S-

Monopolies, a common method
of gaining wealth, i. 11, §§8-13.

Multitude, the, their claim to the
supreme power, iii. 10, § i ; are
better collectively than the in-
dividual, ib. II ; 13, §4; 15 ;
should have power only to elect
and control the magistrates, ib.

11, §7-

Musaeus, quoted, viii. 5, § 11.

Music, subject to a ruling princi-
ple, i. 5, §4; better judged of
by the many than by the indi-
vidual, iii. II, §3; useful (i)
in education, viii. 3; 5 ; 7) §3:
(2) for the intellectual employ-
ment of leisure, ib. 3 ; 5, §§ 8,
9 ; 7> § 3 ; (3) with a view to
purification, ib. 7, §§ 3-6 ; has
an effect upon morals, ib. 5,
§§7. 15-2.5; 6, §§i, 6; 7,
§§ 3-7 ; "Ot taught at Lacedae-
mon, ib. 5, § 7 ; naturally plea-
sant to men, ib. §§ S, 11, 25;
7, § 6 ; produces enthusiasm, ib.
5, §§ 16, 22 ; 7, § 4; allays the
passions, ib. 6, § 9 ; 7' §§ 4"^ 5
a rattle for children of a larger
growth, ib. 6, § 2 ; cannot be
judged except by a perforijier,
ib. § 4 {but cp. c. 5, § 7) ;
must not be pursued to the
point of professional excellence,
ib. 6,§§7, 15; includes ahigher
and a lower kind, ib. §8; 7,
§ 6 ; is composed of melody
and rhythm, ib. 5, § 18 ; 6, § 5 ;

7, §>•
Music, writers upon, viii. 5, § 23 ;

7. §§ 2, 3, ^\ II, 14-
Musical Harmony : «« Harmony.
Myron, tyrant at Sicyon, v. 12,

§12.

Mytilene : see Mitylene.

Nature, implants in man a desire
of posterity, i. 2, § 2 ; makes a
distinction between the ruler
and the ruled, ib. ; 4, § 6; 5 ;

6, § 8 ; 12; 13, § 4 ; — between
the female and the slave, ib. 2,
§ 3 ; her designs must be sought
in things which areuncorrupted,
ib. 5, §5 ; does nothing in a
niggardly fashion, ib. 2, §3;
creates nothing in vain, ib. §10;
8, §12; ii. 5,§8; gives to man
the social instinct, ib. 2, §§ 10-
16 ; iii. 6, §§ 3-5 ; not always
able to accomplish her inten-
tions, i. 5, § 10; 6, § 8 ; sup-
plies food for all, ib. 8, § § 9-1 2 ;
10, § 3 ; has given all freemen
a right to rule, ii. 2, §6; iii. 16,
§§2, 3 ; fits the young to obey,
the old to command, vii. 9, §6;
permits proper relaxation, viii.
3, § 2 ; herself suggests the pro-
per harmonies for each age, ib.

7, § 13 > — forms one element in
virtue, vii. 13, §§ 11-13; 15.
§ 7 ; must be supplemented by
art and education, ib. 17, § 15.

Naval force, the, which should
be possessed by the state, vii.
6, §§ 6-9.

Naxos, v. 6, § I.

Nobility, among Barbarians only
partially recognized by Hellenes,
i. 6,§7; confers aclaim to supe-
riority in the state, iii. 9, § 15 ;
12, §9; 13. §§ 2-5; iv- 8, §3 ;
may be defined (i) as excellence
of race, iii. 13, §3; v. i, §7;
(2) as ancient w ealth and virtue,
iv. 8, § 9 ; confused by mankind
with wealth, ib. §§4, 8; v. 7,
§ I ; like virtue, is not often
tcund, v. I, § 1 4.

Nobles, quarrels among, a cause

Index

341

of revolutions, V. I, §16; 4, §1;
6, § 5 ; S, § 9; form a demo-
cracy among themselves, ib. 8,
§ 6 ; should be humane to the
subject classes, iv. 13, § 8; vi.

5, §§ 5-11.
Notium, v. 3, §15.

Obedience, the necessary prelim-
inary to command, iii. 4, §§ 10,
14; vii. 9, § 6; 14, § 6.

Odysseus, viii. 3, § 9.

Oenophyta, battle of, v. 3, § 5.

Oinotrians, the (in Southern
Italy), vii. 10, §§3-5.

Office, the ' indefinite, ' in which
all the citizens share, iii. i,
§§6-12; 2, §5.

Office, lust of mankind for, iii. 6,
§ 10; oligarchical tiicksto keep
the poor from, iv. 13. §§ 1-4;
justice of the various claims to,
iii. 10-13: — Offices, the, of the
state, posts of honour, ib. 10,
§4; their distribution, iv. 15 ;
vi. 8 ; their organization deter-
mines the character of each
constitution, iv. i, § 10 ; 3, § 5 ;
in small states must be com-
bined, in large ones specialized,
ii. II, §14; iv. 15, §§ 5-7 ; vi.
8, § 2 ; in democracies restricted
to six months' tenure, v. 8, §6;
(cp. vi. 2, § 5) ; and rarely held
more than once by the same
person, iii. i, § 6 ; vi. 2, § .s ;
should be divided into two
classes, v. 8, § 21 ; vi. 5, § 11.

Offices, sale of, and pluralism, at

Carthage, ii. 11, §§ 10, 13.
Oligarchy, the government of the
few for their private interests, iii.

6, § 2 ; 8, § 3; — or, more correctly,
of the wealthv, ib. 7, § 5 ; 8,
§§6, 7; iv. 4, §§i-6, 19; 8,
§7 ; II, §§16-19; V. 1, §3;
vi. 2, § 7; Plato wrong in think-

ing that an oligarchy can ever be
called 'good,' iv. 2, §3; oli-
garchy the perversion of aristo-
cracy, iii. 7, § 5 ; 15. § 12 ; iv.
2, § 2 ; how distinguished from
it, ii. II, §§5-10; iv. 5, § i;
7; 8, §§ 2-10; 14, § 10; v. 7,
§§5-8; popularly supposed,
like aristocrac}', to be a 'govern-
ment of the best,' iv. 8, § 4; v.
I, § 14; analogous to tyranny
in love of wealth, v. 10, § 11 ;
has more forms than one, iv. i,
§ 8; 4, §§ 20-22 ; 12, § 3; 13,
§ 12 ; the forms enumerated, ib.

5. §§1-3; 6, §§7-n; 14,
§§8-ii; vi. 6; oligarchy less
stable than democracy, iv. 11,
§ 14; V. I, § 15; 7, § 6; the
shortest lived of all forms of
governments, excepting tyranny,
V. 12, § I (cp. vi. 6, § 4 ) ; the
extreme form apt to pass into
tyranny.iv. 11, § 11 ; v. 10, § 5;
12, § 13; the causes of revo-
lutions in oligarchies, v. 3,
§ 14 ; 6 ; 12, §§ 15-18 ; the
means of their preservation, ib.

6, §9; 8> §§ 5-21 ; 9; "^i- 6,
§ 5 ; 7 ; — the Lacedaemonians
the champions of oligarchy in
Hellas, iv. 11, § iS; v. 7, § 14;
— the people towliom oligarchy
is suited, iv. 2, § 4; 12, § 3 ; —
the military strength of oligarchy
derived from cavalry and heavy
infantry, ib. 3, § 3 ; 13, §10;
vi. 7, § I ; — oligarchical modes
of appointing magistrates and
judges, ii. 6, §§ 19, 20 ; iv. 14,
§§7-11; 15. §§14-21; 16, §8;
magistracies peculiar to oli-
garchy, iv, 14, § 14; 15, §11 ;
vi. 8, §§17, 24; — luxury of
the women in oligarchies, iv.
15, § 13; bad education of the
children, ib. 11, §6; v. 9,

342

Index

§ 1 3 : — the oligarchs sometimes
forbidden to engage in trade, v.
12, § 14; their tricks to keep
the power in their own hands,
iv. 9, § 2 ; 13, §§ 1-4; 14,
§12; they ought rather to give
the people a share in the go-
vernment, ib. 14, §14; vi. 5,
§ II ; 7> § 4 > they sliould not
take oaths against the people,
V. 9, §§ 10, II ; they should
not be allowed to make money
by office, ib. 3, § i ; 8, § 15;

vi. 7> § 5-
Olympic Games, the, viii. 4, § 8.
Olympus, melodies of, viii. 5,

§ 16.
Onomacritus, the Locrian, ii. 12,

§7.
Onomarchus, a Phocian, v. 4,

§7-
Opici,the,orAusones,vii. 10, §5.
Opus (in Locris), iii. 16, § i.
Oratory, v. 5, § 7.
Oreus : see Hestiaea.
Orthagoras, v. 12, §1.
Ostracism,howfar justiliable, iii.

I3> §§13-25; 17. §7; V. 3,

§3; 8, §12.
Oxylus, king of Elis, vi. 4, § 9.

Paches, v. 4, § 6.

Painters, combine their works
from scattered elements, iii. 11,
§ 4 ; like other artists, observe
a rule of proportion, ib. 13,
§ 21 ; those who, like Poly-
gnotus, express moral ideas, to
be jireferrcd, viii. 5, § 21.

Paintings, obscene, not to be al-
lowed, vii. 17, § 9.

Panaetius, tyrant of Leontini, v.
10, §6; 12, § 13.

Parent, the, relation of, to the
child, i. 2, § 2 ; 3, § 2 ; 12 ;
provides food for the offspring,
lb. 8, § 10; 10, § 3.

Parrhon, of Aenos, v. 10, § 18.

Partheniae,the (atLacedaemon),
conspiracy of, v. 7, § 2.

Passion, intended by nature to be
controlled by reason, i. 5, § 6 ;
present in the human soul from
the first, iii. 15, §§5, 8 ; 16,
§ 5 ; vii. 15, § 10 ; blinds men
to danger, v. 10, §34; 11, §31 ;
the multitude freer from passion
than the individual, iii. 15, § 8,

Patrimony, laws forbidding the
sale of a, ii. 7, § 6 ; 9, § 14
(cp. v. 8, § 20).

Pausanias, the assassin of Philip
of Macedon, v. 10, § 16.

Pausanias, son of Cleorabrotus,
incorrectly called king, v. i,
§10; vii. 14, §20; his con-
spiracy, V. I, § 10; 7, §4; vii.
14, § 20.

Pauson, paintings of, viii. 5,
§21.

Payment of the democracy ; in-
troduced at Athens by Pericles
and Ephialtes, ii. 12, §4; Lad
effects of the practice, ib. 7,
§ 19; iv. 6, § 5; vi. 2, § 6;
how they may be counteracted,

vi. .5, § 5-
Peace, the true object of war, vii.

14, §§13, 22; 15, §§ I, 5; the

dangers of, ib. 15, § 3.
pccliaci, the (or 'men of the

plain'), at Athens, v. 5, § 9.
Pcisistratus, v. 5, § 9 ; 12,

§§2, 5; — Peisi^ratidae, the,

V. 10, §§15, 34; II, §9; 12,

§ 5-
Peloponnesus, ii. 10, § 3; iii. 3,

§ 5 ; — Peloponnesian War, the :

see War, Peloponnesian.
Penestae, the, ii. 5, § 22 ; 9, § 2.
Pentacosio-medinini, the, in

.Solon's constitution, ii. 12, §6.
Pcnthalidae, the, at Mitylene, v.

10, § 19.

Index

343

Penthilus (? tyrant of Mitylene),

V. lo, § 19.
Periander, tyrant of Ambracia,

V. 4, § 9 ; 10, § 16.
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, iii.

13, §i6; V. 10, §13; II, § 4;

12, §3.
Pericles, ii. 12, § 4.
Perioeci (in Argos), v. 3, § 7 : —

(in Crete), ii. 9, §3; 10, §§ 3,

5, 8, 16 : — advantageous to have
perioeci of foreign race as cul-
tivators, vii. 9, § 8 ; 10, § 13.

Perrhaebians, the, ii. 9, § 3.
Persia, iii. 13, § 19; v. 10,

§§8, 24; II, §§4, 6; vii. 2,

§ 10 ; viii. 5, § 5.
Persian War, the : see War,

Persian.
Perversions, the, of the true forms

of government, iii. i,§§8-io;

6, § 11; 7 ; 17, § I ; iv. 2,
§§ 1-3 ; 8, § I ; all governments
perversions of the perfect state,
iv. 8, § I (cp. ii. II, § 5).

Phalaris, of Agrigentum, v. 10,
§6.

Phaleas of Chalcedon, ii. 7, § 2 ;
12, §§ 7, 12.

Pharsalus, v. 6, § 10.

Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, v. 10,
§6.

Pheidon, of Corinth, ii. 6, § 13.

Philip, King of Macedonia, v. 10,
§ 16.

Philolaus, ii. 12, §§ 8, 10.

Philosopher, the, may be allowed
to discuss practical questions, i.
II, §1; has no difficulty in
acquiring wealth, ib. §§8-io;
must go below the surface of
things, iii. 8, § i ; his life as
distinguished from that of the
statesman, vii. 2, §6: — philo-
sophers, the, not agreed about
slavery, i. 6, § 2 ; the opinions
of natural philosophers about

marriage, vii. 16, § 11 ; philo-
sophers who have treated of
musical education, viii. 5, § 23;
7, §§2, 3,8,11,14.
Philosophy, especially necessary
in the prosperous, vii. 15, §§3,

4-
Philoxenus, viii. 7; §§ lOj H-
Phocis, V. 4, § 7,
Phocylides, quoted, iv. 11, § 9.
Phoxus, tyrant of Chalcis, v. 4,

§9.
Phreatto, court of, at Athens, iv.

16, §3-

Phrygian harmony, the : see Har-
mon)'.

Phrynichus, v. 6, § 6.

Phylarchs, magistrates at Epi-
damnus, v. i, § 10.

Physician, the, must be jiadged by
the physician, iii. 11, §§ 10-12 ;
is healed by the physician, ib.
]6, § 8 ; is not expected to per-
suade or coerce his patients, vii.
2, § 13 ; must know both the
end and the means of his art,
ib. 13, § 2 ; precepts of the
physicians about marriage, ib.
16, § II ; law about physicians
in Egypt, iii. 15, § 4.

Piraeus, ii. 8, § i ; v. 3, § 15.

Pittacus, ii. 12, §13; iii. 14,

§§ 9, lo-
Plato, criticisms of; — forms of
government differ in kind, i. i ,
§ 2 ; 3. § 4 ; 7> § I ; the virtue
of men and women not the same,
i' I3> §§9-11 ) slaves not al-
ways to be harshly treated, ib.
§ 14 ; disadvantages of com-
munity of wives and children,
ii. I. § 3-c. 5 ; of common pro-
perty, ib. 5; vii. 10, §9;
the unity of the state may be
carried too far, ii. 2, § 2-c. 3,
§4:4, §6; 5, §13; men and
women ought not to have the

344

Index

same pursuits, ib. 5, § 24 ; dan-
ger from the rulers being always
the same, ib. §§25, 26; hap-
piness should not be confined
to one class, ib. § 27 ; Plato
has neglected the foreign rela-
tions of his state, ib. 6, § 7 ;
amount of property allowed by
him insufficient, ib. § 9 ; he
should have limited population
as well as property, ib. §§ 10-
14; 7, §4; he has not said
how the rulers and subjects are
related, ib. 0, § 14; why should
not property in land be increased
to a certain extent? ib. §15 ; diffi-
culty of living in two houses,
ib. §16; the best state not
made up of tyranny and demo-
cracy, ib. § 18 ; the state of
the Laws really a mixture. of
oligarchy and democracy, ib.
§§ 18-22 ; Plato's distinctions
between good and bad constitu-
tions, iv. 2, § 3 ; his account of
the classes necessary to a state,
ib. 4, §§ 12-15 ; has not recog-
nized the 'Polity' in his enu-
meration of constitutions, ib. 7,
§ I ; his theory of revolutions,
V. 12, §§7-18; his error in
saying that the guardians should
be fierce to those whom they do
not know, vii. 7, §§5-8 :— that
a valiant city needs no walls, ib.
II, § 8 : — that the crying of
children should be checked, ib.
17, §6; his inconsistency in
retaining the Phrygian mode,
viii. 7, §§ 8-13 : — the merits of
Plato's writings, ii. 6, § 6 ; he
departs from ordinary practice
more than other legislatois, ib.
7, § I ; peculiarities suggested
by him, ib. 12, § i -' : — ^justice of
his censure of the Lacedae-
monian constitution, ib. 9, § 34:

— how far right in wishing that
his city should not be near the
sea, vii. 6, §§1-4 : — speech of
Aristophanes in the Symposium
quoted, ii. 4, § 6 : — criticism of
the Republic, ib. i, §3-0. 5;
of the Laws, ib. 6.

Pleasure, always sought by man-
kind, i. 9, § 16; ii. 7, § 12 ;
denied byPlatotohisguardians,
ii, 5, 9 27; is regarded difi'cr-
ently by different persons, viii.
3, §5; the pleasure of living,
iii. 6, §4; relation of pleasure to
happiness, vii. i,§6; liienatural
pleasure given by music, viii. 5,
§§ II, 15, 17, 25; 6, § 8:—
Pleasures, the, which are unac-
companied by pain, ii. 7, § 12.

Poetry, better judged by the many
than the individual, iii. 11, § 3.

Polity : j^f Government, the Con-
stitutional.

Polycrates, v. 11, § 9.

Polygnolus, the painter, viii. 5,
§ 21.

Poor, the, everywhere abound,
iii. 8, § 6 ; v. i, § 14 ; covet
the goods of the rich, iv. 11,
§ 9 ; tlieir degiaded state in
Hellenic cities, ib. §§5-7;
willing to fight if they are su[)-
portecl by the state, ib. 13, S 9;
equal to the rich in democracies,
vi. 2, § 9 ; the surplus revenue
distributed among thc-m in the
extreme democracy, ib. 5, § 7 ;
may cause a revolution if their
niimbeis increase, v. 3, §§ 6-S ;
begrudge the extravagance of
courts, ib. 11, § 19 ; should be
humanely treated, ii. 7, §20;
iv. 13, §8; should be helped
by the rich, vi. 5, §§ 5-1 1.

Population, decline of, at Sparta,
ii. 9. § 16; importance of regu-
lating, ib. 6, §§ 10-14; 7, §§'4-

Index

345"

6; 9, §§14-19; vii. 5, § i ; 16,
§15; changes of government
brought about by the natural
increase of population in Hellas,
iii. 15, § 13; iv. 6, § 5; 13,
§ 10 ; m. 5, § 5 ; a limit of
population necessary to good
government, ii. 6, §§6, 10; 7,

§ 5; 9> § 19; '^'"- 4. §§4-" ;

5, §i; 16, § 15.
Poverty, not the cause of the
worst crimes, ii. 7, § 10 ; always
antagonistic to riches, iv. 4, § 19 ;
the parent of revolution and
crime, ii. 6, § 13 {but cp. v. 12,
§17); one of the essential
characteristics of democracy, vi.

2, §7-

Priests, are not political officers,
iv. 15, § 2 ; necessary to the
state, vii. 8, §§ 7, 9; should be
taken from the aged citizens
who are past state service, ib.
9, §9; their duties, vi. 8, §§ 18-
20 ; required to take their meals
at common tables, vii. 12, § 6.

Property, a part of the household,
i. 4, § I ; 8, § I ; a condition
but not a part of the state, vii.
8, §4; in the sense of food,
provided by nature for all, i.
8, § 9 ; 10, § 3 ; — the pleasure of
property, ii. 5, § 8 ;— Plato's
limit of property unsatisfactory,
ib. 6, § 9 ; the limit should be
such as to enable a man to live
both temperately and liberally,
ib. ; vii. 5, § i ; — inequality of
property at Sparta, ii. 9, §§ 14-
19; V- 7. § 3. 10; 12, § 15;—
a great cause of revolutions, ii.
7, §§2-6.

Property, community of ; criti-
cism of Plato's scheme, ii. 5
(^see Plato) ; common property
opposed to human nature, ib.
§§4, 16; exists in a moGilied

degree among friends, ib. §§6,
7 ; vii. 10, § 9 ; found to some
extent at Sparta andTarentum,
ii- .=^> §7; vi* .5) §16; would
destroy the virtues of temper-
ance and liberality, ii. 5, §§ 8-
10 ; would not produce the
marvellous results which Plato
expects, ib. § 11 ; — equalization
of, proposed by Phaleas, ib. 7 ;

12, § 12 ; would not remedy
the deeper evils of human nature,
ib. 7, §§S-i.^, 18.

Property qualification, required
in the holders of various offices,
iii. II, § 16; iv. 4, § 24; 5,
§ I ; 6, §§ 3, 7 ; vi. 4, § 5 ;
ought not to be excessive, iv.

13, § 7 ; in oligarchies should
be fixed according to two stan-
dards, vi. 6, § 2 ; changes in, a
cause of revolutions, v. 3, §§ 8,
10: 6, §§ 16-18; 7, §9; the
evil may be remedied by pe-
riodical revisions of the census,
ib. 8, §§ 10, II.

Proportion, importance of, iii.

13, § 21 ; iv. 12 ; V. i, §§ 12-

15; 3. §6; 7, §8; 8,§i2; 9,

§ 7 ; vii. 4, § 10.
Psammetichus, son of Gordius,

tyrant at Corinth, v. 12, § 3.
Pyramids, the, of Egypt, v. 11,

§9-

Reason, an element of virtue, vii.

13, §§ 10-13; 15, § 7; is the
master artificer, i. 13, § 8; di-
vided into two parts, the specu-
lative and the practical, vii. 14,
§ 10 ; is the end towards which
nature strives, ib. 15, §8; in-
tended by nature to control the
passionate or irrational element
in the soul, i. 5, § 6 ; 13, § 6 ;
vii. 14, § 9 ; 15, § 8 ; is not
found in the animals, i, 2, § 11;

34<^

Index

vii. 13, § 12 ; exists in slaves to
alimitedcxtent, i.5,§ 9; 13, §3;
is not readily obeyed by those
vvlio have great advantages over
others, iv. 11, §5; may be
overcome by passion, v. 10,
§ 33 ; 1 1 , § 31 ; may make mis-
takes, vii. 15, § 7.
Religion, matters of, used to be
entrusted to the kings, iii. 14,
§§ 3, 14 (cp. vi. 8, § 20) ; the
tyrant should have a care of
religion, v. 11, §25; the ex-
pense of public worship should
be borne by the state, vii. 10,
§ 10: — the officers of religion,
vi. 8, §§ 18-21 ; vii. 8, § 9 ;

9, §9-

Religious worship, one of the
conditions of the state, vii. 8,
§8.

Representation, principle of, once
existed in the government of
Mantinea, vi. 4, § 4.

Republic, the, of Plato : see
Plato.

Rest : see Leisure.

Retail trade, not a natural mode
of money-making, i. 9, §§ 4,
12 ; arises out of the barter of
necessary articles, ib. §§ 9-12.

Revolutions, their objects, v. i ;
their causes, ii. 7, §§ 2, 5, 10;
v. 2; 3; 4; 10, § 13; 12,
§§14-18; their occasions, v.
4 ; 7> § 1 1 » the preventives of
them, ii. 11, § 15 ; v. 7, § 6 ;
8 ; 9 ; 1 1 ; vi. 4, §§ 16-20 ; 5 ;
6 ; revolutions in democracies,
v. 5 ; — in oligarchies, ib. 6 ; —
in constitutional governments,
ib. § 1 7 ; 7, § 5 ; — in aristocracies,
ib. 7; — in monarchies, ib. 10;
— in tyrannies, ib. ; 11; Plato's
theory of revolutions, criticized,
ib. 12, §§ 7-18; — questions
raised after revolutitns: citizens

dejure and de facto, iii. 2, §§34
5 ; should old debts be paid-
ib. 3, § I ;— democratic mea-
sures taken by Cleisthenes and
others after a revolution, ib. 2,
§§ 3-,S ; vi. 4, § 18 ; revolutions
may happen without an imme-
diate change in the constitution,
iv. .s,§3; V. I, §8.
Rhcgium, ii. 12, § 14; v. 12,

§ I.'..

Rhodes, ii. 10, § 3 ; v. 3, §§ 4, 5 ;
5> § 2.

Rich, the, one of the elements of
the state, iv. 4, §15; every-
where few compared to the poor,
iii. 8, §6; v. i, §14; often
hindered bythecares of property
from attending to public busi-
ness, iv. 6, § 6 ( but cp. i. 7, § 5) ;
possess the external advantages
of which the want occasions
crime, iv. 8, §4 (cp. ii. 7, § 10);
have toomucli pov^'er in so-called
aristocratical governments, iv.
12, §6; v. 7, §7; their en-
croachments more dangerous to
the state than those of the poor,
iv. I 2, §6 ; constantly in antago-
nism to the poor, ib. 11, §7;
v. 9, § 10 ; should be protected
against the demagogues, v. 8,
§ 20 ; vi. 5, § 3 ; should be
relieved from useless state cx-
])cnses, V. 8, § 20 ; vi. 5, § 9 ;
should be generous to the poor,
iv. 13, § 8 ; vi. 5, § 10 ; should
be public-spirited and munifi-
cent, vi. 7, § 6 ; are often spoilt
by indulgence in childhood, iv.
ii,§6;v. 9, §13; can alone
afford the expense of keeping
horses, iv. 3, § 2.

Riches and poverty, the opposing
elements of the slate, v. i,
§14; 8, § 14; riches more de-
sired by men than honour, iv.

Index

3 47

I3> §S ; V. 8, § i6; vi. 4, § 2;

Solon wrong in thinking that
' no bound has been fixed to
riches,' i. 8, § 14. See Wealth.

Koyalty, the form of government
in which one rules for the best,
iii. 7, § 3 ; V. 10, § 3; analogous
to aristocracy, v. 10, §§2, 7;
opposed to tyranny, iii. 7, §5 ;
iv. 2, § 2 ; V. 10, § 2 ; is it
better than the rule of the law?
iii. 15 ; 16; arose (i) from the
government of families by the
eldest,!. 2, § C ; 7, § i ; 12, §3;
(2) from services rendered by the
first chiefs, iii. 14, § 12 ; i5,§ii;
V. 10, §§ 3, 8 ; (3) from the
weakness of the middle and
lower classes, iv. 1 3 , § 1 1 ; once
existed in Crete, ii. 10, § 6 ; has
various forms : (i) the Lacedae-
monian (which is only a general-
ship for life), ii. 9, § 33 ; "i- 14,
§§3. 14; i5> §§ I, 2; 16, §1;
(2) the despotic (among Bar-
barians), iii. 14, §§6, 14; iv.
10, § 2 ; (3) the ancient Dicta-
torships, iii. 14, §§8, 14 ; iv.
10, § 2 ; (4) the monarchies of
the heroic age, iii. 14, §§ 11-14;
(5) the absolute monarchy, ib.
§ 15 ; — the people to whom
royalty is suited, ib. c. 17;
— causes of revolutions in mon-
archies, V. 10 ; means of their
preservation, ib. 11, §§1-3;
royalty more often destroyed
from within than from without,
ib. 10, § 36 ; true royalty un-
known in later Hellas, ib. § 37;
vii. 14, § 3. ^i?i?King, Monarchy.

Rule ; the various kinds of rule
essentially different from each
other, i. I, § 2 ; 3, § 4 ; 5, § 6;
7, § I ; 12; 13, §§4-8; iii. 6,
§§5-7; vii. 3, §2 ; 14, §6;
the distinction between the

ruler and the ruled foimd
throughout nature, i. 2, § 2 ; 5,
§§ 2-7 ; the better the ruled,
the better the rule, ib. 5, §§ 2,
7 j V. 1 1, § 34 ; the rule of free-
men better than despotic au-
thority, vii. 14, § 19 ; rule over
ethers, not the highest object of
the legislator, ib. 14, §§ 14-22;
rule must be learnt by obedience,
iii. 4, S§ 10, 14; vii. 9, §6;
14. § 6.
Ruler, the, ought to have moral
virtue in perfection, i. 13, § 8 ;
the virtue peculiar to him, iii. 4,
§ 17 ; must learn to govern by
obedience, ii. 11, § 14 ; iii. 4,
§ 14; vii. 9, § 6 ; 14, § 6; the
rulers ought to remain the same,
ii. 2, §§4-8; vii. 14, § 2 ;
dangers arising from this
arrangement, ii. 5, §§ 24-27 ;
vii. 14, §3; the difficiilty solved,
if the elder rule, and the younger
obey, vii. 9, § 5; 14, § 5.

Salamis, victory of, v. 4, § 8.
Samos, iii. 13, § 19 ; v. 3, § 12 ;

II, § 9-

Sardanapalus, v. 10, § 22.

Science, the, of the statesman, L
I, § 2; 10, § I ; iii. 12, § I ;
iv. I, § 3; — ofthe master, i. 3,
§ 4 ; 7, §§ 2, 4;— of the slave,
ib. 7, §§2, 3 ; in all sciences the
whole must be resolved into the
parts, ib. i, § 3 ; every science
capable of improvement, ii. 8,
§18; the philosophical student
of science must not neglect any
detail, iii. 8, § i ; all sciences
aim at some good, ib. 12, § i ; —
the political science the highest
of all sciences, iii. 12, § i; aims
at the good of the state, vii. 2,
§ 4 ; the subjects which it in-
cludes, iv. I, §§3-11.

348

Index

Scylax, vii. 14, § 3.

Scylletic Gulf, the, vii. 10, § 3.

Scythians, the, vii. 2, 5§ 10, 11.

Sedition : see Revolution.

Self-sufficiency, the, of the state,
the end and the best, i. 2, § S ;
vii. 5, § I ; S, § S ; w^ould not
be promoted by extreme unifi-
cation, ii. 2, § 8.

Senate : see Council of Elders.

Senators: .y^^ Councillor?.

Servant, the, a kind of instrument
in the arts, i. 4, § 2 ; many ser-
vants often less efficient than a
few, ii. 3, § 4 ; tlie servants
who are employed in daily life,
those with whom we most often
disagree, ib. 5, § 4 ; children
not to be left too much to ser-
vants, vii. 17, § 7. See Slave.

Sesostris, king of Egypt, vii. 10,
§§i,6.

Seuthes, v. 10, § 24.

Shepherds, lead the laziest life
among men, i. 8, §6; some-
times combine brigandage with
their other occupations, ib. § 8 ;
form the second best material
of a democracy, vi. 4, §§ i, 11 ;
make excellent soldiers, ib. § il.

Sicily, ii. 10, § 4 ; v. 12, § 13.

Sicyon, v. 12, § i.

Simos (?), a party leader at
Larissa, v. 6, § 13.

Sirrhas, v. 10, § 17.

Slave, the, does he exist by nature?
i. 4, § 6-c. 6 ; different from tiie
I'emale (except among I'arba-
rians), ib. 2, §§ 2-4 ; how re-
lated to his master, ib. §§ 2-5 ;

3, §§1-3; 4, §5; vii. 3, §5;
not always distinguished by
nature from the freeman, i. 5,
§ 10 ; 6, § 8 ; the relation be-
tween slave and master, when
natural, does not exclude kind-
ness, ib. 6, § 9 ; slave and

master have a common interest,
ib. 2, § 3 ; iii. 6, § 6 ; the slave
must not be addressed in the
language of command only
[against Plato, Laws, vi. 777], i.
13, § 14; place oftheslavtr in the
management of the family, ib.
4 ; 5, § 9 ; 8, § I ; the slave an
instrument taking precedence
of other instruments, ib. 4, § 2 ;
like the animals, ministers to
the needs of life, ib. 5, § 9 ;
the science proper to him, i. 7,
§§2,3; his share in virtue, in,
13, §§ 2-14 ; — in reason, ib. 5,
§§ S, 9; 13- §3 ; has not the
deliberative faculty, ib. 13, § 7>
is nearer to his master than tlie
mechanic, ib. § 13 ; ought to
be trained in virtue by him, ib.
§ 14 : — Slaves, how related to
artisans, i. 1 3, § 1 3 ; ii- 7, § 2 2 ;
iii. 4, § 12; 5, § 3 ; forbidden
gymnastic exercises in Crete, ii.
5, § 19 ; difficulty in managing
them, ib. § 22 : 9, §§ 2-4; vii.
! o, §13; the different classes of
slaves, iii. 4, § 12 ; children of
slaves only admitted to citizen-
ship in extreme democracies, ib.
5, § 7 ; vi. 4, § 16; slaves can-
not form a stale, iii. 9, § 6; can-
not be self-sufficient, iv. 4, § 11;
licence allowed to them in
democracies and tyrannies, v.
II, § II ; vi. 4, § 20 ; some-
times emancipated by tyrants
to serve as a guard, v. 11, §32;
should be encouraged by the
hojie of freedom, vii. 10, § 14;
their company dangerous for
children, ib. 17, § 7.

Slavery, is it according to nature ?
i. 5 ; 6.

Slavery ; — men should not think
it slavery to live according to
the constitution, v. 9, § 15.

Index

349

Slaves, the art of acquiring, a
species of hunting or war, i. 7j
§5 ; vii. 14, § 21.

Smerdis, v. 10, § 19.

Society, political, the highest of
allcommunities,i. I, § 1 ; exists,
not for mere companionship,
but for the sake of noble actions,
iii. 9, §§ 12-14; man designed
by nature to take part in society,
i. 2, §§ 8-16 ; iii. 6, § 3 ; bene-
fit conferred on manliind by the
establishment of society, i. 2,
§ 15 ; society cannot exist with-
out judicial deci -lions and punish-
ments, vi. 8, § 9 ; vii. 13, § 6.

Socrates : see Plato.

Soldiers, according to Plato,
should be taught to use both
hands alike, ii. 12, § 12 ; shep-
herds make excellent soldiers,
vi. 4, § II ; relation of the dif-
ferent kinds of soldiers to the
different constitutions, ib. 7,
§§ 1-3 i the soldier must have
a good knowledge of the mili-
tary art, vii. II, § 12 ; soldiers
as necessary to the state as
artisans or husbandmen [against
Plato, Rep. ii. 369], iv. 4, §§ 10-
17; vii. 4, §§4-7; 8, § 7; 9,
§ 10 ; the soldiers should be
taken from the youth, the coun-
cillors from the old, vii. 9,
§§ 3-10 ; 14, § 5 ; should form
a separate caste, as in Egypt, ib.
9, § 10 ; ID, § I ; position of
the soldiers in the constitution
of Hippodamus, ii. 8, §§ 2, 8-
12.

Soldiers, heavy-armed , citizenship
in constitutional governments
confined to the, ii. 6, § 16 ; iii.
7, §4; 17, § 4; iv. 13, § 10;
growth of their iniportance in
Hellenic slates, iv. 13, §§9-12 ;
taken from the roll of c.tizens

at Athens, v. 3, §7; form (with
cavalry) the natural military
force of an oligarchy, vi. 7,
§§ 1,2 ; generally worsted by the
light-armed in popular insurrec-
tions, ib. § 3 ; — the principal
magistrates elected from those
who are serving, or who have
served, ii. 8, § 9 ; iv. 13, § 9.

Soldiers, light-armed, always at-
tached to democracy, vi. 7, § 2;
generally master the heavy-
armed in popular insurrections,
ib. § 3 ; the younger citizens in
oligarchies should be trained in
the exercises of light infantry,
ib.

Solon, i. 8, § 14 ; ii. 7, § 6 ; 12,
§§ 2-6 (cp. iii. II, § 8) ; iv. 11,

§15-

Sophocles, quoted, i. 13, § 11.

Soul, the, rules by nature over
the body, i. 5, §§ 4-6 ; poste-
rior to the body in order of
generation, vii. 15, §9; more
truly a part of an animal than
the body, iv. 4, § 14 ; the beauty
of the soul less easily seen than
that of the body, i. 5, § 11 ;
the interests of soul and body
the same, ib. 6, §10; the ir-
rational element in the soul
subject to the rational, ib. 5,
§6; 13, §6; vii. 14, §9 ; 15,
§ 8 ; the divisions of the soul,
i- 5, §§5-7; 13, §6; iii. 4>
§ 6 ; vii. 14, § 9 ; 15, § 9 ; the
soul never wholly free from
passion, iii. 15, § 5 ; said to be
or to possess harmony, viii. 5,
§ 25.

Sparta : see Lacedaemon.

Speculation, life of, opposed to
that of contemplation, vii. 2 ;
3; 14. §§9-22.

State, the, is the highest of com-
munities, i. I, § I ; is based upon

3fo

Index

the relations ofhusband and wife,
father and child, master and
slave, ruler and subject, ib. 2 ;
13, § 15 ; formed of a union
of villages, ib. 2, §8 ; exists for
the sake of a good life, ib. ; iii.
p, §§ 6-14; iv. 4, §11; vii. I,
§1; 8, §§4, 8;— not for the
sake of alliance and security, iii.
9, §§6-14; is distinguished
from an alliance because it has
an ethical aim, ii. 2, § 3 ; iii. 9,
§ 8 ; — from a nation, because it
is made up of different elements,
ii. 2, § 3 ; is not necessarily
formed by a number of persons
residing together, iii. 3, § 3 ; 9,
§§9-12 ; (Jiiit cp. ii. I, § a) ;
is a work of nature, i. 2, §§ 8,
9 ; prior to the family or the
individual, ib. § 12; 13, § 15 : —
composed of dissimilar parts or
elements, ii. 2, § 3 ; iii. i, § 2 ;
4, §§ 6-8 ; iv. 3, § I ; 4, § 7 ;
12, §§1-4; V. I, §§ 12-15; 3»
§ 6 ; vii. 8 ; the parts not to be
identified with the conditions of
the state, vii. 8, § i ; the parts
and conditions enumerated, iv.

3, §§i-6; 4, §§7-20; vii. 8,
§ 7 ; — compared to the parts of
animals, iv. 4, §§ 7-9 : — thestate
depends for its identity mainly
on the sameness of the constitu-
tion, iii. 3 ; must be able to de-
fend itself, ii. 6, § 7 ; 7, §§ 14-
17; 10, § 15; iii- 12, § 9; iv.

4, § 10; vii. 4, §6; 15, §2;
should be self-sufficing, i. 2, §8 ;
ii. 2,§ 8 ; vii. 4, §11 ; 5, § i ; 8,
§ 8 ; sliould not exceed a certain
size, ii. 6, §6; iii. 3, §§4-7; vii. 4;

5, § I ; — has the same virtue,
and therefore the same life and
end, as the individual, vii. 1-3 ;
13-15 ; may, like an individual,
be wanting in self-discipline, v.

9, § 12 ; must have the virtues
of leisure, vii. 15, § i ; can lead
a life of virtuous activity isolated
from others, ib. 2, § 16 ; 3, §§S-
10 ; is not made happier by
conquest, ib. 2 ; 3; 14, §§ I4-
22 ; rests upon justice, i. 2, § 16;
vii. 14, § 3 ; must have a care
of virtue, iii. 9, § 8 ; vii. 13, § 9
(cp. iv. 7, § 4) ; must be happy,
not in regard to a portion of
the citizens, but to them all, ii.
5, §27; vii. 9, §7 ; is imited
by friendship among the citizens,
ii. 5, §6; iii. 9, § 13; iv. 11,
§7; V. II, §5 (cp.vi. 5, §7);
must pay great regard to edu-
cation, i. 13, § 15; ii. 7, § 8;
v. 9, § 1 1 ; viii. i : — must not be
left to fortune, ii. 11, §§ 15,
16; vii. 13, § 9; is not the
growth of a day, v. 3, § ii ; is
preserved by the principle of
compensation, ii. 2, §§ 4-7; is
sometimes left at the mercy of
the army by the violence of
faction, v. 6, § 13 ; its perma-
nence can only be secured by the
toleration of all elements, ii. 9,
§ 22 ; iv. 9, § 10; 12, § i; V.
8, § 5 ; 9. § 5 ; vi. 6, § 2 ; any
state, however ill-constituted,
may last a few days, vi. 5, § i :
— the various claims to autho-
rity in the state, iii. 9, §§ 1-5,
14; 10; 12; 13; iv. 8, §9; vi.
3, §§1-4; what share in the
state may be allowed to the
ordinary citizen? iii. 11, §§6-
8; iv. 13, §§5-8; vi. 4, §5; 7,
§ 5 (cp. ii. 12, §5).
State, the ideal, of Aristotle,
would require (i) a defensible
position, vii. 5, § 3; (2) a mode-
rate naval force, ib. §§ 6-9;
(3) courageous and intelligent
citizens, ib. 7 ; (4) the exclusion

Index

3fi

of ireclinnics and tradesmen
from citizenship, ib. 9, § § i-S ;
(5) slaves and Perioeci to till
the soil, ib. §8; 10, §§9, 13,
14 ; (6) common meals, ib. lo,
§§ 1-8, 10; (7) subdivision of
the land into two parts, public
and private, ib. §ii; (8) [for
the city^ a central situation, ib.
5> § 3 ; 1 1 ) § 2 ; — near, but not
upon, the sea, ib. 6, §§ 1-6; a
healthy site, ib. 11, § i ; a good
water supply, ib. § 3 ; proper
fortifications and walls, ib. §§5,
8-1 2 ; an arrangement of houses
and streets which will combine
the advantages of beauty and
security, ib. § 6 ; an acropolis,
for the temples, and a ' freemen's
agora,' ib. 12, §§i-6; govern-
ment buildings and a trader's
agora, ib. 7.

State, the best [absolutely], the
enquirer into, must examine the
best ideal and actual forms of
government, ii. i, § i;differsfrom
the so-called aristocracies be-
cause the citizens are absolutely
good, iii. 13, § 12 ; iv. 7, § 2
(3«^cp. iii. 4, §5); presupposes
the best life, vii. i ; in compari-
son with it, all existing govern-
ments maybe called perversions,
iv. 8, § I.

State, the best [under ordinary
circumstances] , iv. i ,§ 3; 1 1 , § 2 1
(cp. ii. 6, § 16}.

State, the best [for mankind in
general], iv. i, § 3 ; 11, §1.

Statesman, the, is properly con-
cerned with the natural art of
acquisition only, i. 8, § 15; 10,
§ I ; ought also to be acquainted
with the art of money-making,
ib. n,§i3; must be able tore-
cognize evils at their commence-
ment, V. 4, §3; 8, §9; must

not despise small things, ib. 3,
§10; 4, §1; 7, §11; 8, §2;
must he have virtue, or is skill
alone sufficient ? ib. 9, §§1-4;
must know the real effect of
political measures, ib. § 9 ;
will use fear as a means to bind
the state together, ib. 8, § 8 ;
will not suppose that the great-
ness of the state depends merely
on size, vii. 4, § 4; the life of the
statesman contrasted with the
life of the philosopher, ib. 2, § 6.

Statesman, the, the rule of, dif-
ferent from other kinds of rule,
i. I, §2; 3, §4; 7, §1,

Stentor, vii. 4, § 11.

Sybaris, v. 3, §§ 11, 12.

Symposium, the, of Plato : see
Plato,

Syracuse, i. 7, § 2 ; iii. 15, § 16;

V. 3. §§6> 13; 4, §§1-4.9; 5.
§ 10; 6, § 8; 10, §§6, 23, 28,
30-2; II, §§ 7, 10; 12, §§6,
12.
Syrtis (?), a district of Southern
Italy, vii. 10, § 5.

Tarentum, iv. 4, § 21 ; v. 3, § 7 ;

7, § 2 ; vi. 5, § 10.
Telecles, of Miletus, iv. 14, § 4.
Tenedos, iv. 4, § 21.
Thales, of Miletus, i. 11, § 8 :—

[probably the Cretan poet], ii.

12, §7-
Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, v.

5, §9-
Thebes; ii. 9, §§ 10, 16; 12,

§10; iii. 5: §7; V. 3, §5; 6,

§15; vi. 7, §4.
I'heodectes, quoted, i. 6, § 7.
Theodorus, the actor, vii. 17,

§13-
Theopompus, king of Sparta, v.

II, § 2.
Thera, one of the Sporades, iv.

4>§5-

m

Index

Thessaly, ii. 5, § 22 ; 9, § 2 ;
vii. 12, § 3.

Thetcs, the (in Solon's constitu-
tion), ii. 12, § 6.

Thibron, vii. 14, § 17.

Thirty, the, government of, at
Athens, v. 6, § 6.

Thracians, the, vii. 2, § 10.

Thras}bulus (brother of Hiero),
V. 10, § ,^i ; 12, § 6.

Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus,
in. 13, § 16 ; V. 10, § 13.

Thrasyllus, viii. 6, § 12.

Thrasymachus, v. 5, § 4.

Thurii, V. 3, §§ 11," 12; 7, §§ 9,
12.

Timophanes of Corinth, v. 6,
§ 12.

Timophanes, of Mitylene, v. 4,
§6.

Trade : see Commerce.

Traders, the employments of, de-
void of moral excellence, vi. 4,
§12; vii. 9, § 3 ; ought to be
excluded from citizensb.ip, vii.
9, § 3 ; admitted to olTice at
Thebes after they had retired
from business ten years, iii. 5,
§ 7 ; vi. 7, § 4.

Triopium, promontory near
Cnidus, ii. 10, § 3.

Troezen, v. 3, § 11 ; vii. 16, § 7,

Tyrannicide, esteemed honour-
able in Flellas, v. 10, § 26.

Tyranny, the government of the
monarch who rules for his own
interests, iii. 7, § 5 ; 8, § 2 ; iv.
lo» § ,S i V. 10, §9; akin to
democracy, iv. 4, § 27 ; v. 10,
§ § 1 1 , 30 ; 1 1 , § I 2 ; hardly to
be called a constitution, iv. 8,
§ I ; ID, § I ; tlie perversion of
royalty, iii. 7, § 5 ; 17> § ' ; iv-
2, § 2 ; 4, §27; 5, § 2; 10,
§ 3 ; does not rest upon natural
justice or expediency, iii. 17,
§ I ; has all the vices both of

democracy and olij^archy, v.

10, §§ II, 30, 35 ; is unendur-
able to freemen, iv. 10, § 4 ; v.

11, § 13 ; may arise either from
extreme oligarchy ordemocracy,
iv. II, §11; V. S,§7; in Sicily,
often arose out of oligarchy, v.

12, §13; viras common in an-
cient times, owing to the great
powers of the magistrates, ib. 5,
§ 8 ; 10, § 5 ; always a short-
lived government, ib. 12, §1;
rarely becomes hereditary, ib.

10, § 33 ; causes of revolution
in tyrannies, ib. 10 ; means of
their preservation, ib. ii ;
governments into which tyranny
may change, ib. 12, § 11.

Tyrant, the, is the natural enemy
of the freeman, iv. 10, §4; v.

11, § 13 ; cuts off his rivals, iii.

13, §§ 16-19; V. 10, §13 ; II,
§ 5 ; rules over involuntary sub-
jects as the king over voluntary,
iii. 14, § 7 ; aims at pleasure,
the king at honour, v. 10, § 10;
is guarded by mercenaries, iii.

14, § 7 ; V, 10, § 10 ; sometimes
obliged to emancipate the slaves,
V. II, § 32 ; is much under the
influence of flatterers, iv. 4,
§ 2S; V. II, § 12 ; destroys the
spirit and confidence of his
subjects, V. II, §§4, 13, 15;
sends spies among them, ib. § 7 ;
incites ihem to quarrel, ib. § 8 ;
oppresses them by war and taxa-

.tion, ib. ; distrusts his friends,
ib. § 10 ; gives licence to slaves
and women, ib. § 1 1 ; vi. 4, § 20 ;
loves the bad, v. 11, § 12 ; pre-
fers foreigners to citizens, ib.
§ 14; is capable of any wicked-
ness, ib. ; is full of self-indul-
gence and sensuality, ib. §23;
may also preserve his tyranny by
playing the ' father of his

Index

3f3

country,' ib. §§ 17-33; must be
on his guard against assassins,
especially against those who
think that they have been in-
sulted, ib. § 30 ; must conciliate
the poor or the rich, whichever
is the stronger, ib. § 32.

Tyrants, the, of Hellenic cities
put down by the Lacedae-
monians, iii. 2, § 3 ; V. ID, § 30 ;
of Sicily, by the Syracusans, v.
10, §30.

Tyrants, most of the ancient,
originally demagogues, v. 5,
§6; 10, §4; sometimes great
magistrates, or kings, ib. 5, §8 ;

10, § 5.

Tyrrhenians, the, iii. 9, § 6.
Tyrtaeus, v. 7, § 4.

Usury, the most unnatural mode
of money-making, i. 10, §5;

11. §3-

Utility, too much regarded by
Hellenic legislators, vii. 14,
§15; is not the sole aim of
education, viii. 2, §3; 3, §11; is
not sought after by men of noble
mind, ib. 3, § 12.

Village, the, acolonyofthe family,
i. 2, §6; the state a union ot
villages, ib. § 8.

Virtue, the especial characteristic
of aristocratical governments, ii.
II, §§ 5-10; iv. 7; V. 7, §§ 5-
7 ; often allied to force, i. 6, § 3 ;
more a concern of household
management than wealth, ib.
1 3, § I ; depends upon the supre-
macy of the rational principle in
the soul, ib. §6; vii. 14, §9;
15, §9; cannot be included
under a general definition, i. 13,
§ 10 ; must be taught to the
slave by his master, ib. §12;
ought to be the aim and care

of the state, iii. 9, §§6-S; vii.
i.^, §9 (cp- iv. 7, §4); gives a
claim to superiority in the state,
iii. 9, §§ 14, 15; 13, §1; has
many kinds, ib. 7, § 4; cannot
ruin those who possess her, ib.
10, § 2 ; is a mean, iv. 11, § 3 ;
how far required in the great
officers of state, v. 9, §§ 1-4;
must be at least pretended by
the tyrant, ib. 11, §§ 25, 34; is
regarded as a secondary object
by mankind, vii. i, §5: — can-
not be separated from happiness,
vii, I, § 3 ; 2, § 2 ; 3, § I ; 8,
§ 5; 9' § 3; 13. § 5; results
from nature, habit, and reason,
ib. 13, §§ 10-13 ; i.S. §§7-io;
is not a matter of chance, ib. 13,
§ 9 ; how far consistent with the
political life, ib. 2:3; should it
be made the aim of education?
viii. 2; consists in hating and lov-
ing and rejoicing aright, ib. 5,
§ 17 : — should not (as is done by
the Lacedaemonians) be sup-
posed inferior to external goods,
ii. 9,§35 (cp. vii. I, §5); nor be
practised with a view to the
single object of success in war,
ii- 9' § 34; vii. 2,§ 9; 14, § 16;
15, §6: — the virtue proper to
the slave, the woman, the child,
i. 13, §§ 1-3; of the ruler and
the subject different, ib. §§ 4-6;
iii. 4, §§ 7-1 8; of the ruler,
practical wisdom, of the subject,
true opinion, iii. 4, § 18 ; of
men and women not the same,
i. 13, §§3, 9-11; iii. 4, §16;
less required in the artisan than
the slave, i. 13, § 12 (cp. vii.
9, §7); of the citizen relative to
the constitution, iii. 4, §§ 1-7 ;
iv. 7, § 3 ; V. 9, § I ; of the good
man absolute, iii. 4, §§ 1-7 ;
vii. 13, §7; ofthe good citizen:

3/4

Index

— is it identical with that of
the good man V iii. 4 ; 5, § 10 ;
18; vii. 14, §8; of the citizen
in the perfect state, iii. 4, § 5 ;
J3. § 12; iv. 7, § 2.
Virtue, military, is found in the
masses, iii. 7, § 4 ; the social,
is justice, i. 2, § 16; iii. 13,

§3.
Virtues, the, of women and child-
ren important to the state, i.
13. § i.S ) i'- 9> § 5 ; of the state
and the individual the same,
vii. I, § 12; of the military life,
"• 9. §§ "> 34; vii. 15, §3;
of leisure, vii. 15, § i.

War, a part of the art of acqui-
sition when directed against
wild beasts and against men who
are intended by nature to be
slaves, i. 7, § 5 ; 8, §12; vii.
2, § 15 ; 14, § 21 ; exists forthe
sake of peace, vii. 14, §§ 13, 22 ;
15, § I ; a school of virtue, ii.
9, § 1 1 ; a remedy against the
dangers of prosperity, vii. 15,
§ 3 ; constant war a part of
tyrannical policy, v. 11, § 10 ;
success in war the sole object of
the Lacedaemonian and Cretan
constitutions, ii. 9, §§ 34, 35 ;
vii. 2, §9; 14, § 16; 15, §6;
progress in war : — invention of
tactics, iv. 13, §10; — of siege
machines, vii. 11, § 9 ; improve-
ment of fortifications, ib. § 12.

War, captives taken in, ought
they to be made slaves? i. 6,
§§i-8.

War, the Peloponnesian ; losses
of the Athenian nobihty, v. 3,
§ 7 ; battle of Oenophyta, ib.
§5; — capture of Mitylene, ib.
4, § 6 ; — battle of Mantinea, ib.
§9; — the Sicilian expedition,
ib. ; — the Four Hundred at

Athens, ib. § 13 ; 6, § 6 ;— the
Thirty, ib. 6, §6.

War, the Persian, v. 3, § 7 ; 4,
§§ 4, 8 ; 7, § 4 ; effect of, upon
Athens, ii. 12, § 5 ; v. 4, § 8 ;
viii. 6, § II : — the Sacred, v. 4,
§7.

\\ ealth, always antagonistic to
poverty, iv. 4, § 19; forms an
element of the state, ii. 7, § 16 ;
iv. 4, § 15; vii. 8, §§ 7, 9; in-
cludes many varieties, i. 8, § 3 ;
iv. 3, § 2 ; [the true kind] has
a limit, i. 8, § 14 ; 9, §§ i, 12;
popularly confused with coin,
ib. 9, §§ 10, 14 ; not so much a
concern of household manage-
ment as virtue, ib. 13, § i; must
be used with both temperance and
liberality, ii. 6, § 8 ; vii. 5, § i.

Wealth, too highly valued at
Sparta and Carthage, ii. 9,
§§ 7, 13 ; ir, §§ 8-12; iv. 7,
§ 4 ; the chief characteristic of
oligarchy, ii. II, § 9 ; iii. 8, §7;
!▼• 4. §^ 3) 19 ; V. 10, § II ; vi.
2, § 7 ; confers a claim to supe-
riority in the state, iii. 9, §§ 4-
6, 15; 12, §§ 8, 9; 13, §§ 1-5;
popularly associated with good
birth and education, iv. 8, §§4,
S ; V. 7, § I. See Riches.

\\'ealthy, the, have the external
advantages of which the want
tempts men to crime, ii. 7, § 10;
iv. 8, § 3 ; are apt to be spoiled
by the luxury in which they are
reared, iv. 1 1 , § 6 ; v. 9, §13;
form one of the classes necessary
to the state, iv. 14, § 15; vii.
S, §§ 7. 9- See Rich.

\Miole, the, must be resolved into
its parts, i. i, § 3 ; 8, § i ; prior
and therefore superior to tlie
parts, ib. 2, §§12-14; i"- ^7>
§ 7 ; the part belongs entirely
to the whole, i. 4, § 5 ; every

Indi

ex

35" 5-

whole has a ruling element,
ib- 5 J § 3 ; the whole and the
part have the same interest, ib.
6, § lo ; the virtue of the parts
relative to the virtue of the
whole, ib. 13, § 15 ; the happi-
ness of the whole dependent on
the happiness of the parts, ii. 5,
§ 27 ; vii. 9, § 7 ; the sophism
that ' if the parts are little the
whole is little,' v. 8, § 3 ; the
care of the part and the care of
the whole inseparable, viii. i,

§3-

Woman, the, has a different
virtue to the man, i. 13, §§ 3-
12 ; iii. 4, § 16 ; shares in the
deliberative faculty, i. 13, § 7-

Women, should be trained with
a view to the state, i. 13, § 15
(cp. ii. 9, § 5) ; cannot have
the same pursuits as men, ii. 5,
§24; said to have been common
among certain Libyan tribes, ib.
3, §9; have great influence
among warlike races, ib. 9, § 7 ;
caused great harm to Sparta by
their disorder and licence, ib.
§§5-13; possessed two-fifths of
the land in Laconia, ib. § 15 ;
too proud in oligarchies to be
controlled, iv. 15, § 13 ; have
often ruined tyrannies by their
insolence, v. ir, §23; are
allowed great licence in demo-

cracies and tyrannies, ib. 11,
§ 11; vi. 4, §20; commonly
cease to bear children after fifty,
vii. 16, §§5, 16; should not
marry too young, ib. § 6 ; im-
part their nature to their ofi^-
spring, ib. § 14.
Women and children, the com-
munity of, proposed by Plato,
ii. I, § 3 ; 12, § 12 ; he has not
explained whether he would
extend it to the dependent
classes, ib. 5, §§ 18-24; — objec-
tions of Aristotle : (i) unity
would not be promoted, ib. 3,
§2; (2) there would be a general
neglect of the cliildren, ib. § 4 ;

(3) the parentage of the children
could not be concealed, ib. § 8;

(4) expiations would be impos-
sible, ib. 4, § I ; (5) the conceal-
ment of relationship would lead
to unnatural criiues, ib. §§ 1-3,
ID; (6) affection would be
weakened, ib. §§4-9; (7) the
transfer of children to another
rank would be found impractic-
able, ib. § 10 ; (8) the household
would be neglected, ib. 5, § 24.

Xerxes, King of Persia, v. 10,
§ 21.

Zaleucus, ii. 12, § 7.
Zancle, v. 3, § 12.

/w/

1966

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